Sociology
See also psychology.
Lev Vygotsky: cultural-historical activity theory (1978)
Identity
Core self-evaluations
- Locus of control
- Self-esteem
- Self-efficacy
- Neuroticism or emotional instability and prevalance of negative emotions
Self-image
Self-schema
Self-concept
Self-expression
Life stance
World view and primal world beliefs
- conceptual metaphor: George Lakoff, Metaphors We Live By (1980)
- World Values Survey
Identification: a person internalizes aspects of a model into their own personality and values. The model can be a person, group, or trend.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-licensing
Social system: family, community, organization, city, industry, nation, religion
Social structure: pattern of relations and arrangements in ideals, interests, attitudes, communications and interactions, status, kinship. Such as family, class, law, economy.
Socialization
Ingroup
- Affinity is shared spirit, interest, ideas, ideals, and identification in a tight community.
- Relational mobility
- Social norms and taboos
- Social construct
- Stigma is social disapproval based on perceived characteristics.
- Rite of passage
- A shibboleth distinguishes members of the ingroup. Slang, pronunciation.
- Intergroup anxiety about perceptions and norms.
- Group polarization
- Asch conformity experiments
- Milgram experiment
- Groupthink
- Bandwagon effect
- Cults
- Othering
- Bystander effect
- Bobo doll experiment by Albert Bandura: imitation learning.
Performativity
- Masking or persona: conceal true personality to conform to social pressure
- The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life (1956)
- Social signaling
- Impression management
- Self-monitoring
- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaze
- Thin-slicing: judgments on first impressions or narrow windows of experience are surprisingly accurate
Social comparison theory
Behavioral confirmation: social expectations cause us to behave in ways that cause others to confirm our beliefs. Friendliness, attractiveness, and social roles.
- Pygmalion effect: higher expectations cause higher performance
Culture
Personal discrimination
- Discrimination is disparate treatment based on their perceived group membership.
- Microaggression is a subtle, often unintentional slight or insult.
- Allport’s Scale of discrimination
- Ten stages of genocide
- Prejudice is an unjustifiable negative feeling towards a person based on their perceived group membership.
- Implicit bias or unconscious bias is often demonstrated via the implicit association test.
- Ambivalent prejudice
- A stereotype is a belief about a category of people, often oversimplified or inaccurate.
- Oppressed members internalize beliefs and relationships from their environment.
- Stereotype threat: people get stressed about conforming to stereotypes about their group.
- Social identity threat
Structural discrimination
- Oppression is unjust exercise of power over a group of people, while privilege is unjust advantage or entitlement.
- White Privilege: Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack (1989) by Peggy McIntosh.
- Intersectionality
- The term structural violence or slow violence emphasizes human responsibility.
- Repression deprives people of their rights. Persecution is systematic mistreatment.
- Marginalization prevents groups from participating fully in society.
- Social invisibility: people who are ignored by society, such as the elderly, homeless people, etc.
- Aversive racism
- Media representation is a form of inclusion that affects self-esteem.
- Erasure: tendency to remove margnialized groups in media or downplay their significance
- Bechdel test
Systemic bias
- History
- slavery, Jim Crow laws
- Chinese Exclusion Act, internment of Japanese Americans
- Disparate impact: rules that appear neutral but adversely affect one group more than another
- voter registration requirements
- the law, in all its majesty
- Institutional racism
- Housing: redlining
- Education
- Eugenicist Carl Brigham created the SAT in 1926.
- 1923. Brigham argues that the Nordic Race was intellectually superior and warned of “promiscuous intermingling” with immigrants.
- 1930. Brigham recants his conclusions, saying that test scores are a “composite including schooling, family background, familiarity with English”.
- Students of color often attend schools with fewer resources, lower-quality teachers, and higher class sizes. Often with fewer mentors and support networks to help navigate the college application process and succeed in college. Feelings of cultural isolation.
- Standardized tests often measure knowledge that may not be equally accessible to all students.
- Asian cultures emphasize education as a means to social and economic mobility, leading to intense academic pressure and expectations from a young age. Development of test-taking skills with test-prep resources like tutoring and specialized courses.
- Princeton Review: “don’t attach a photograph to your application and don’t answer the optional question about your ethnic background. This is especially important if you don’t have an Asian-sounding surname. Don’t say you want to be a doctor, and don’t say you want to major in math or the sciences.”
- Hestitation to identify as Asian leads to lower self-actualization, self-esteem, negative attitudes toward education, lower academic achievement, and higher stress.
- GreatSchools.org
- Employment: gender pay gap, glass ceiling, bamboo ceiling
- Criminal justice: police violence, racial profiling, driving while black, selective enforcement, prosecution, sentencing, immigration. Black people are perceived as more threatening.
- racial segregation
- tokenism and quotaism
- model minority
- Asians often seen as perpetual foreigners.
- environmental justice: pollution is concentrated in marginalized communities
- fenceline community
- sacrifice zones are permanently impaired by toxic waste
- Pollution haven hypothesis
- Social epidemiology and social determinants of health
- Biopsychosocial model
- minority stress
- Weathering hypothesis: marginalized groups have poorer health outcomes.
Solutions
- Protected groups: race, gender, age, religion, physical attractiveness or sexual orientation.
- Diversity, equity, and inclusion
- Affirmative action
Max Weber: Economy and Society (1921) and The Protestant Ethic (1905)
Robert K. Merton: Social Theory and Social Structure (1949)
The Sociological Imagination (1959) by C. Wright Mills.
The Social Construction of Reality (1966)
Distinction (1979)
The Civilizing Process (1939)
The Theory of Communicative Action (1981)
Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography (1975)
- Émile Durkheim founds sociology as a social science.
- Patrick Geddes pioneers humanist urban planning that considers social and ecological contexts and interactions using a civic survey. He criticizes narrow expertise that coerces and destroys lived histories and associations.
- Max Weber develops sociology as a continental philosophy.
René Girard: mimetic theory of desire.
Anthropology