Music

Folk music

Roud Folk Song Index catalogs 25,000 English songs. Child Ballads are 305 English ballads.

• 1609. Three Blind Mice.
• 1659. London Bridge Is Falling Down.
• 1695. Mother Goose’s Melody includes Rock-a-bye Baby.
• 1706. Old MacDonald Had a Farm.
• 1761. The ABC Song.
• 1765. Jack and Jill.
• 1779. Amazing Grace: Amazing grace, how sweet the sound / that saved a wretch like me. I once was lost, but now am found, / was blind, but now I see.
• 1780. Yankee Doodle.
• 1797. Humpty Dumpty.
• 1806. Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star.
• 1813. Peter Piper tongue-twister.
• 1830. Mary Had a Little Lamb.
• 1852. Row, Row, Row Your Boat.
• 1880. Ring Around the Rosie. Popularly attributed to the Great Plague, but this has been refuted.
• 1898. The Wheels on the Bus.
• 1902. How much wood would a woodchuck chuck
• 1908. She sells seashells
• 1912. Head, Shoulders, Knees and Toes.
• K-I-S-S-I-N-G.
• Christmas songs
  • 1818. Silent Night.
  • 1850. Jingle Bells.
  • 1928. The Oxford Book of Carols.
  • 1934. Santa Claus Is Comin’ to Town.
  • 1961. Carols for Choirs.
  • 1941. White Christmas written by Irving Berlin, sung by Bing Crosby.
  • 1949. Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer.
  • 1949. Baby, It’s Cold Outside.
  • 1951. It’s Beginning to Look a Lot Like Christmas.
  • 1953. Santa Baby by Eartha Kitt.
  • 1994. All I Want for Christmas Is You.

Folk dance

• Jig: lively 16th century Irish folk dance. Triplets with a swing feel.
• Czarda: Hungarian folk dance, begins slowly with dynamic changes to faster tempo. 2/4 or 4/4 time.
• Polka is a Czech dance.
• English square dances around 1600. Quadrille with four couples.
• English country dance contredanse around 1700. 2/4 or 6/8 time.
• 1914 American foxtrot is a ragtime vaudeville dance. 28 bars per minute, 4/4 time.
• Street dance
  • 1960s. Boogaloo: freestyle funk dance from Oakland and Fresno. A pose, pop, or hit is a jerk or sudden stop in motion.
  • 1970s. Popping emphasizes jerking movements.
    • 1983. Moonwalk popularized by Michael Jackson
    • Liquid and digits
  • Locking consists of fast, rhythmic dance which suddenly holds a position for a short time then continues at the same pace.
  • 1970s. Robot popularized by Michael Jackson
  • Breakdance or breaking by b-boys. Popping, floor moves, power moves, and freezes.
    • Breakbeat uses drum breaks. The voice part takes a break while the backing drum or bass fills in.
  • 1990 Vogue from Harlem gay balls popularized in Vogue (1990) by Madonna and Paris Is Burning (1990) documentary.
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Street_dance
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Hip-hop_dance

Folk music

• 1909. Little Red Songbook includes The Red Flag and The Internationale.
• Simon & Garfunkel: The Sound of Silence (1965)
  • Mrs. Robinson (1968) Song of the Year.
  • Bridge over Troubled Water" (1970) Song of the Year.
• 1963. Yakety Sax fiddle tunes for comedic chases. Popularized by Benny Hill.
• The Mamas & The Papas: California Dreamin’ (1963) and “Monday, Monday” (1966).
• Don McLean: American Pie (1971).
• Killing Me Softly with His Song (1973) by Roberta Flack.
• Leonard Cohen: Hallelujah (1984).
• Tejano music popularized by Selena in 1989. Shot dead by an employee at age 23.
• Bonnie Raitt: Just Like That (2022) Song of the Year.

American country music: storytelling, catchy melody, and simple structure.

• Patti Page: best-selling female artist of the 1950s. Tennessee Waltz (1950) and “(How Much Is) That Doggie in the Window?” (1953).
• 1949. Bluegrass: Foggy Mountain Breakdown.
• Johnny Cash sings deep, sad country songs like Hurt (2002), Ring of Fire (1963), the protest song Man in Black (1971), I Walk the Line (1956), Folsom Prison Blues (1955). After a period of drug dependence, his live album At Folsom Prison (1968) is deeply emotional and revives his career.
• Honky-tonk (1950s): rough, rhythmic
• Nashville Music Row includes RCA.
  • Nashville sound (1950s) revives country in the face of rock and roll. Smooth strings and sophisticated background vocals.
• John Denver: Take Me Home, Country Roads (1971)
• Neil Young: Heart of Gold (1972), Rockin’ in the Free World (1989)
• Shania Twain: You’re Still the One (1998) and “Man! I Feel Like a Woman!”

• Dolly Parton: I Will Always Love You (1974), 9 to 5 (1980), Jolene (1973).
• Loretta Lynn: Coal Miner’s Daughter (1970) and Don’t Come Home A-Drinkin’ (1966)
• Miranda Lambert: Kerosene (2005) and The House That Built Me (2009)
• Michael Bublé: Home (2005) ballad, Haven’t Met You Yet (2009), Everything (2007) on unconditional love
• Carrie Underwood: Before He Cheats (2005).
• Dixie Chicks: Not Ready to Make Nice (2006). Song of the Year.
• Lady Antebellum: Need You Now (2009) Song of the Year.

Exotic dance

• 1848. Bohemianism: free love, frugality, and non-traditional lifestyles.
• 1870. American burlesque by vedettes or showgirls.
• 1893. Egyptian belly dance.
• 1870. La Belle Époque and fin de siècle.
  • 1889. Moulin Rouge cabaret: can-can dancer La Goulue. Bal des Quat’z’Arts with nude models.
  • 1905. Dutch Mata Hari at Guimet Museum.
• 1920. Années folles
  • 1925. Josephine Baker at Folies Bergère.
• 1920. American striptease: stripper pole, private table or lap dances, tipping. Girlfriend experience.
• 1970. Clothed go-go dancing in Tokyo.
• 1970. Lap dancing at Mitchell Brothers O’Farrell Theatre.
• 1990. Scores New York: upscale “gentlemen’s club” with A-list clients.

Classical

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_Golden_Record#Track_listing
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_from_Lincoln_Center

Medieval music.
Plainchant is monophonic, unaccompanied, Latin church music. Gregorian chant is a refined plainchant with more melodic freedom in the 9th and 10th centuries.
An organum is a plainchant melody with an extra voice (vox organalis), either a bass line or a parallel line transposed a fifth or fourth.

Dance

• Closed position: close together with body contact.
• Open position: further away and connected by hands.
• Ballet
  • pointe shoes
  • Appalachian Spring (1944) by Aaron Copland.
• Modern dance
  • 1898. Isadora Duncan pioneers free dance: barefoot, natural movements like skipping, sacred Greek influence.
  • 1910. Salome dance.
  • American Ruth St. Denis founds the Denishawn school dance adapting Indian and Egyptian dances.

Renaissance music uses polyphony and counterpoint.

• Ars nova develops polyphony in the 1300s, mainly in France.
• Contenance angloise or English manner in the 1400s developed harmonies based on thirds and sixths, producing a sweeter sound.

A round has one melody sung by multiple voices that start at different times.

• Sumer is icumen in (1261).

• Minuet: French social dance in triple meter, typically in a rounded binary form ABA. A scherzo is a faster triple meter.

• Waltz: smooth, flowing dance in triple time, 28 bars per minute. Late 18th century. Popular ballroom dance. Viennese Walts is 58 bars per minute.

• Forlane: a lively Baroque Italian dance in 6/8 time.

• Passacaglia: stately Baroque Spanish dance with measured steps. Triple time.

• Rigaudon: lively French dance in duple meter.

• Habanera: Late 19th century Cuban dance with syncopated beat, slow tempo, seductive movements, expressive melody.

Common practice period from 1650 to 1900 uses tonal harmony. It is organized around a particular key or tonic with orderly harmonic progression or chord progression.

Baroque (1600-1750) music is richly embellished with trills, turns, and flourishes.

• Lutheran chorale is sung by the congregation and can have four-part harmony.
• The cantata contains several movements, including arias (expressive solo melodies), recitatives (speech-like bridging narrations), and choruses.
• An oratorio is a large-scale religious composition with a sung dramatic text and minimal staging.
• An opera has staged sets, props, costumes, and character interactions.
  • Bel canto style emphasizes beautiful pure legato tone quality and precise, virtuoso performance over dramatic expression.
  • 1960. Australian soprano Joan Sutherland.
  • American soprano Lillian Russell
• A suite contains four dances in the same key:
  • An allemande is an elegant, moderate tempo dance in duple meter.
  • A courante is a playful, lively, flowing dance in triple meter.
  • A sarabande is a slow and stately dance in triple meter.
  • A gigue is a joyful and energetic dance in 3/8 meter.
• A fugue develops a single theme in different instruments or voices.
• A sonata consists of three or four movements with contrasting moods. An allegro movement develops the melodic theme. A slow movement. A dance movement (minuet or scherzo). A closing movement. The sonata form includes exposition, development, and recapitulation.
  A concerto is an orchestral piece with a vocal solist. It has three movements: fast, slow, fast.
  • A cadenza is a vocal solo section.
• Johann Sebastian Bach
  • The Well-Tempered Clavier (1722) including Prelude and Fugue in C major
  • Sonatas and Partitas for Violin
  • Concerto No. 2 in F major (1721).
  • Concerto for Two Violins (1730).
• Antonio Vivaldi The Four Seasons (1720).
• George Handel
  • The anthem Zadok the Priest is performed at every British coronation.

Classical (1750-1820) music emphasizes order, balance, clarity, and restraint.

• A canon includes a leader melody (dux) followed by an imitative follower melody (comes) in a different voice.
  • Row, Row, Row Your Boat (1852)
  • Frère Jacques (1780). Also Two Tigers 两只老虎.
• A rondo has a principal theme or refrain that alternates with contrasting themes or episodes.
• Haydn composes Symphony No. 94 (1792).
• Mozart
  • Twelve Variations on “Ah vous dirai-je, Maman” (1785) or Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star
  • Requiem in D minor (1791)
  • Piano Concerto No. 24 (1786)
  • violin sonatas
  • The Magic Flute opera including the Queen of the Night aria.
• Beethoven
  • Moonlight Sonata (1801).
  • Für Elise.
  • Fifth symphony opens with the famous da-da-da-DUM motif, which gets developed throughout the first movement.
  • Ninth symphony (1824) ends with a choral Ode to Joy. In reversed form with the scherzo before the slow movement.
  • Symphony No. 5 (1808).
  • Symphony No. 7 in A major (1812).
  • Piano Sonata No. 14 (“Moonlight Sonata”)
  • Violin Concerto in D major (1806).
  • String Quartet No. 13 in B♭ major (1826).
  • Piano Concertos (1809).

Romanticism emphasizes expression over form.

• Chopin composes Nocturne Op. 9, No. 2 (1830) and Étude Op. 10, No. 3 (1832).
• Tchaikovsky composes the ballets Swan Lake and The Nutcracker, the 1812 Overture, and Piano Concerto No. 1 (1875).
• Brahms composes his Symphony No. 1 (1876).
• Franz Liszt composes Hungarian Rhapsody No. 2 (1851).
• Edvard Grieg composes In the Hall of the Mountain King (1875).
• Richard Wagner composes Der Ring des Nibelungen (1870) and the operas Tristan und Isolde (1865) and Parsifal (1882).
• Richard Strauss: Also sprach Zarathustra (1896) and Der Rosenkavalier (1911).
• Franz Schubert composes Winterreise (1827) and Piano Trio No. 1 in B-flat (1827).
• Sibelius composes Symphony No. 7 (1924), a single-movement symphony.
• Claude Debussy: impressionist, with vivid imagery through subtle melodies and harmonies atmosphere, and less structure. Clair de Lune is the third movement of Suite bergamasque (1905).
• Modest Mussorgsky: Pictures at an Exhibition (1874) and Song of the Flea (1879).
• Gustav Mahler
  • Fifth symphony (1902) opens with a trumpet solo.
  • Symphony No. 9 (1909).
  • Symphony No. 8 (1906).
  • Symphony No. 2 (1895).
  • Symphony No. 1 (1888).
  • Das Lied von der Erde (1909).
• Dmitri Shostakovich: Fifth Symphony (1937) and Seventh Symphony (1941) written in the siege of Leningrad.
• Aram Khachaturian: Piano Concerto (1936).
• Rossini: William Tell (1829) is an early grand opera with a famous overture
• Giuseppe Verdi operas
  • La traviata (1853) based on Camille (1848) by Alexandre Dumas fils.
  • Otello (1887)
• Giacomo Puccini: La bohème (1896), Tosca (1900), Madama Butterfly (1904), and Turandot (1924).
• Sergei Prokofiev: Piano Concerto No. 3 (1921) and Peter and the Wolf (1936).
• Sergei Rachmaninoff: Piano Concerto No. 2 in C minor (1902). Piano Concerto No. 3 (1909).
• Antonin Dvorak: Cello Concerto in B minor (1894).
• Chen Gang 陈钢: Butterfly Lovers’ Violin Concerto 梁祝小提琴协奏曲 (1959)
• Yellow River Piano Concerto 黄河钢琴协奏曲 (1970) by Yin Chengzong: patriotic
• Samuel Barber: Violin Concerto (1939).
• Roy Harris: Symphony No. 3 (1939).
• Bartok: Concerto for Orchestra (1943), Quartets (1939), Contrasts (1940)

Expressionism.

• Arnold Schoenberg pioneers atonal music in Pierrot lunaire (1912).

Neoclassicism is a reaction against Romanticism

• Igor Stravinsky composes The Rite of Spring (1913) and Petrushka (1911) ballet.

Modern

• Charles Ives: Symphony No. 2 (1902)
• Maurice Ravel
  • Boléro (1928) is an ostinato (“stubborn”) emphasizing a repeating phrase.
  • Mother Goose Suite. The Fairy Garden builts to a delicate, transcendent crescendo.
  • Daphnis et Chloé (1912) opera.
  • Piano Concerto in G major (1931).
• Philip Glass composes undulating, layered rhythms and ostinatos morphing over broad tonal harmony. He writes the opera Akhnaten (1983), and minimal pieces such as 1+1.
• Aaron Copland: Symphony No. 3 (1946) and Fanfare for the Common Man (1942).
• 4′33″ (1952) by John Cage is silent, emphasizing process, indeterminacy, and the sounds of the audience and environment.
• Jacob Gade: Jalousie (1925) tango.
• Alban Berg: Wozzeck (1922) opera.
• Benjamin Britten: War Requiem (1962).
• Edward Elgar: Violin Concerto (1910), Pomp and Circumstance Marches (1930).
• Erich Wolfgang Korngold: Violin Concerto (1945).
• Pianist Lang Lang 郎朗
• Ernest Gold: Theme of Exodus (1960) Song of the Year.
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimal_music

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award_for_Record_of_the_Year
https://www.pbs.org/show/great-performances/
http://everynoise.com/engenremap.html
https://www.music-map.com
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Hall_of_Fame
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Rock_and_Roll_Hall_of_Fame

Symphony orchestras

• Chicago Symphony Orchestra
• Cleveland Orchestra
• Los Angeles Philharmonic
• Boston Symphony Orchestra
• New York Philharmonic (1842)
• San Francisco Symphony
• Philadelphia Orchestra

Jazz

Grammy Hall of Fame
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_Grove_Dictionary_of_Music_and_Musicians
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_American_Songbook
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Performances
Newport Jazz Festival

Blues (1850s): soulful storytelling. Emerges from African spirituals and work songs expressing hardship and loss. It features a 12-bar chord progression with I, IV, and V chords and a call-and-response pattern between instruments. Often played at Black-run juke joints.

• Ragtime (1900s)
• Boogie-woogie (1920s)
• Doo-wop involves group harmony of a melody line, often with nonsense syllables. Often features the ’50s progression I–vi–IV–V.
• Albert King: Born Under a Bad Sign (1967).

Jazz (1900s) develops from blues and ragtime. It emphasizes improvisation, complex harmonies, and syncopated rhythms.

• Shim-Me-Sha-Wabble (1917) by Spencer Williams inspires the shimmy, which wobbles the shoulders with the rest of the body still.
• Charleston dance (late 1920s): toes in, heels out twisting steps.
• Swing (1930s) emphasizes the off-beat. Lush strings and vocal performance. Lindy Hop dance or jitterbug.
  • Louis Armstrong: What a Wonderful World (1967), When the Saints Go Marching In (1938), West End Blues (1928), Black and Blue (1929), All of Me (1932), Heebie Jeebies (1926), “Hello, Dolly!” (1964), Lazy River (1931), Mack the Knife (1955), Nobody Knows the Trouble I’ve Seen (1938), Savoy Blues (1927), St. Louis Blues (1929), Star Dust (1931), Weather Bird (1928).
  • Ella Fitzgerald: scat singing. How High The Moon (1947), “A-Tisket, A-Tasket” (1938), Let’s Do It.
  • Billie Holliday: What a Little Moonlight Can Do (1935), Strange Fruit (1939) about lynching, God Bless the Child (1939), Lover Man (1944), Embraceable You (1944), My Man (1937), Solitude (1941), Crazy He Calls Me (1949).
  • Cole Porter writes Anything Goes (1934), What Is This Thing Called Love? (1929), From This Moment On (1950), Begin the Beguine (1935).
  • Balboa dance (1930s): Southern California 8-count swing.
  • Jazz dance. Bob Fosse develops finger snapping, jazz hands, turned-in knees, sideways shuffling, rolled shoulders, canes, chairs. Wore tilted bowler hats and gloves since he was self-conscious of baldness and hands.
• Big band (1940s): 10+ musicians on saxophone, trumpet, trombone, and rhythm. Written arrangements with less improv.
  • Duke Ellington. It Don’t Mean a Thing (If It Ain’t Got That Swing) (1931), Take the “A” Train (1941), Mood Indigo (1931) melancholic, Black and Tan Fantasy (1928), “Black, Brown and Beige” (1944), Caravan (1937), Don’t Get Around Much Anymore (1940).
  • Artie Shaw: Star Dust (1940), Any Old Time (1938), Begin the Beguine (1935), Frenesie (1940).
  • Benny Goodman and Peggy Lee: Carnegie Hall Jazz Concert (1938) and Hooray for Hollywood (1937).
  • Count Basie: Everyday I Have the Blues (1955), Lester Leaps In (1939), One O’Clock Jump (1937), April in Paris (1955). From Spirituals to Swing (1938) at Carnegie Hall.
  • Fred Astaire: The Way You Look Tonight (1936), Cheek to Cheek (1935), Night and Day (1932), They Can’t Take That Away From Me (1937), “Top Hat, White Tie and Tails” (1935), Fascinating Rhythm (1926).
• Easy listening (1940s) emphasizes strings.
  • Crooner singers (1940s) perform with a smooth, intimate style. Better microphones allow more dynamic range.
  • Frank Sinatra sings heartfelt love songs, including Sweet Lorraine (1946), Someone to Watch Over Me (1946), You Go to My Head (1953), Come Fly with Me (1958), Fly Me to the Moon (1964), “New York, New York” (1977), The House I Live In (1946), I’ve Got the World on a String (1953), I’ve Got You Under My Skin (1956), My Way (1969), One for My Baby (1958), Strangers in the Night (1966).
  • Bing Crosby: I Don’t Stand a Ghost of a Chance with You (1932), “Brother, Can You Spare a Dime?” (1932), Don’t Fence Me In (1944), Pennies from Heaven (1936), Swinging on a Star (1944)
  • Sammy Davis: What Kind of Fool Am I? (1962). Song of the Year.
• Traditional pop (1950s).
  • Moon River (1961) by Henry Mancini. Song of the Year. Sung by Audrey Hepburn in the film Breakfast at Tiffany’s.
  • Édith Piaf sings La Vie en rose (1946) and Non, je ne regrette rien (1960).
  • Doris Day: “Que Sera, Sera” (1956), Secret Love (1953)
  • Dean Martin: Sway (1954), That’s Amore (1953), Memories Are Made of This (1955).
  • Hildegarde: Darling, Je Vous Aime Beaucoup (1943)
  • Domenico Modugno: Volare or “Nel blu, dipinto di blu” (1958) Song of the Year. Italian chanson.
  • Barbra Streisand is a top-selling female artist, with 70 million albums sold. First female composer to earn an Oscar, for Evergreen (1976). People (1964), The Way We Were (1974) Song of the Year. Streisand effect: attempting to censor information publicizes it.
  • Liberace: I’ll Be Seeing You (1938).
• Radio formats
  • Contemporary hit radio: top 40s.
  • 1960s Oldies adds older “gold” songs for variety.
  • 1960s Middle of the road (MOR) excludes rock, which dominated contemporary hits. Has strong melody, vocal harmony, and light orchestral arrangements. Includes smooth jazz, easy listening, traditional pop, soft rock.
    • 1960s Beautiful music: mostly instrumental.
  • 1970s Adult standards
  • 1970s Adult contemporary music
  • 1980s Classic hits and MTV.

George Gershwin composes Rhapsody in Blue (1924), An American in Paris (1928), I Got Rhythm (1930), the aria Summertime (1934), They Can’t Take That Away from Me (1937)
Art Tatum: Tea for Two (1924).
Carmichael: Stardust (1927), Georgia On My Mind (1930).
Blind Willie Johnson: Dark Was the Night, Cold Was the Ground (1927).
Thelonious Monk composed many jazz standards, such as Blue Monk (1954).
Dizzy Gillespie is a jazz trumpeter who popularizes bebop (200+ bpm).
Miles Davis: So What, Freddie Freeloader, and All Blues in 1959, and Solar (1954).
Dave Brubeck sings Take Five (1959).
Nat King Cole: Mona Lisa (1950). Unforgettable (1951) Song of the Year.
Nina Simone sings the civil rights song Mississippi Goddam (1964) and I Put a Spell on You (1965).

Rhythm and Blues (R&B, 1940s) emphasizes smooth, polished, melodic vocals and a danceable backbeat. More upbeat and celebratory. Electric guitars.

• Dinah Washington: Teach Me Tonight (1954), What a Diff’rence a Day Makes (1959), Unforgettable (1959).
• 1960. The Miracles: Shop Around, You’ve Really Got a Hold on Me (1962), Going to a Go-Go (1965). Breakthrough success for Motown Records.
• 1961. The Marvelettes: Please Mr. Postman. Second success for Motown Records.
• 1961. Stand by Me by Ben E. King.
• Dionne Warwick sings Walk On By (1963).
• Tina Turner: What’s Love Got to Do with It (1984) Song of the Year. Proud Mary (1971). “River Deep, Mountain High” (1966).
• Endless Love (1981): Lionel Richie and Diana Ross.
• Seal: Kiss from a Rose (1994) ballad and Song of the Year.
• Alicia Keys. Fallin’ (2001) Song of the Year. No One (2007), If I Ain’t Got You (2003).
• Usher: U Got It Bad (2001) emphasizes vulnerability and emotional depth. Yeah! (2004) popularizes crunk as an aggressive, bass-heavy subgenre.
• Ne-Yo: So Sick (2006), Because Of You (2007), Miss Independent (2008).
• H.E.R.: I Can’t Breathe (2020) Song of the Year. Fight for You (2021) Best Original Song.

Soul (1960s) emphasizes passionate, emotive vocals.

• Ray Charles pioneers soul music which blends rhythm and blues, jazz, and gospel. Georgia on My Mind (1960), America the Beautiful (1976), What’d I Say (1959).
• Aretha Franklin, the Queen of Soul, sings her first hit I Never Loved a Man (The Way I Love You) (1967), Think (1968), I Say a Little Prayer (1968).
• Otis Redding, the King of Soul, writes (Sittin’ On) The Dock of the Bay (1967), Respect (1965), and Try a Little Tenderness (1966).
• Little Richard sings Tutti Frutti (1955). He is known as the Architect of Rock and Roll, with energetic piano, powerful bass beat, and raspy vocals.
• Marvin Gaye sings Let’s Get It On (1973), Ain’t That Peculiar (1965), Can I Get a Witness (1963), I Heard It Through the Grapevine (1966). Motown.
• The Supremes: I Hear a Symphony (1965) and You Can’t Hurry Love (1966). Motown.
• Whitney Houston sings When You Believe (1998), I Wanna Dance with Somebody (Who Loves Me) (1987), I’m Your Baby Tonight (1990).
• Amy Winehouse: Rehab (2006) Song of the Year.
• Adele
  • Rolling in the Deep (2010) Song of the Year.
  • Skyfall (2012) Best Original Song.
  • Hello (2015) Song of the Year.
• Sam Smith
  • Writing’s on the Wall (2015) Best Original Song.
  • Stay with Me (2014) Song of the Year.

Funk (1970s) emphasizes rhythm over melody. Strong, repetitive, danceable rhythms and grooves. “On the one” beat and syncopated rhythms with offbeat patterns and unexpected accents to create a dynamic and energetic feel. Swung 16th notes and slower tempo.

• James Brown releases “I Got You (I Feel Good)” (1965).
• Earth, Wind & Fire: Shining Star (1975).
• Prince sings Purple Rain (1972), When Doves Cry (1984), and Sign o’ the Times (1987).
• Stevie Wonder
  • Superstition (1972): infectious funk groove, memorable clavinet piano riff, and socially conscious lyrics
  • I Just Called to Say I Love You (1984), a ballad
  • Living for the City (1973): story of a poor black man facing discrimination and injustice with sounds of the city.
• Bruno Mars: That’s What I Like (2016) Song of the Year. Leave the Door Open (2021) Song of the Year. Talking to the Moon (2010). When I Was Your Man (2012).

Disco (1970s): four-on-the-floor beat, syncopated bassline, synth.

• ABBA: Dancing Queen (1976), Mamma Mia! (1975), The Winner Takes It All (1980). Mamma Mia! is also a jukebox musical.
• Bee Gees: Stayin’ Alive (1977), How Deep Is Your Love (1977)
• Gloria Gaynor: I Will Survive (1978)
• Donna Summer: I Feel Love (1977).

Ska originates in Jamaica in the 1950s. It features a walking bass line with accents on the offbeats.

Reggae originates in Jamaica in the 1960s. Themes of love, faith, and freedom. It has staccato offbeat guitar chords and a heavy four-beat drum and bass rhythm. Bob Marley address social issues and unity.

• Silly Games (1979) by Janet Kay, lover’s rock.
• Shaggy: It Wasn’t Me (2000)

Latin dance

• Contra dance between two lines of dancers.
• Brazilian samba popularized by Carmen Miranda in 1940. 49 bars per minute, 2/4 time.
  • Bossa nova is a relaxed samba in 1960.
• Méringue is a Haitian dance with guitar, strings, and horn. Dominican merengue with accordion develops from the 1822 Haitian occupation of Santo Domingo.
• Cuban bolero: 24 bars per minute.
• 1930s Rhumba derives from Cuban rumba with polyrhythmic drumming on conga drums. 24 bars per minute, 4/4 time.
• Cuban cha-cha-cha in the 1950s. 29 bars per minute, 4/4 time.
• Mambo 1960s. “On two”: change step direction on count 2.
• Cuban salsa popular in New York in 1960.
• Argentine tango: 31 bars per minute, 4/4 time.

Musicals

Rodgers and Hammerstein integrate music and drama, with emotional depth, lush harmony, soaring vocals, and catchy melodies.

• Oklahoma! (1943)
• Carousel (1945)
• South Pacific (1949)
• The Sound of Music (1959)

Others

• Singin’ in the Rain (1952)
• Lerner and Loewe: Camelot (1960)
• My Fair Lady (1964) musical stars the Cockney flower-seller Eliza Doolittle (Audrey Hepburn). Adapts Pygmalion by George Bernard Shaw. Costumes by Cecil Beaton.
• Mary Poppins (1964). Songs by the Sherman Brothers.
• Rodgers and Lorenz Hart: Manhattan (1925), Isn’t It Romantic? (1932), Blue Moon (1934)
• The Sound of Music (1965). 1959 musical by Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II following the Trapp Family Singers.
• Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory (1971) stars Gene Wilder.
• Fiddler on the Roof (1971) by Norman Jewison. Very sad.
• A Chorus Line (1975): What I Did for Love.
• All That Jazz (1979).

Stephen Sondheim

• West Side Story (1957) composed by Leonard Bernstein.
• Gypsy (1959)
• Company (1970)
• Sweeney Todd (1979)
• Sunday in the Park with George (1984)
• Into the Woods (1987)

Moulin Rouge! (2001) stars Nicole Kidman and Ewan McGregor.
Chicago (2002) by Bob Fosse: Roxie Hart (Renée Zellweger) and lawyer Billy Flynn (Richard Gere).
Disney: High School Musical (2006) series stars Zac Efron and Vanessa Hudgens.

• Can I Have This Dance?

Hair (1967): hippie rock musical.
Mass (1971) by Leonard Bernstein.
Frank Loesser: Guys and Dolls (1950) and How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying (1961).
Cabaret (1972) stars Liza Minnelli.
Grease (1978) features greaser John Travolta.
Hairspray (2007) features John Travolta, Michelle Pfeiffer, Christopher Walken, Amanda Bynes.
Camp Rock (2008) stars Demi Lovato and Joe Jonas.
A Star Is Born (2018) stars Bradley Cooper and Lady Gaga. “Shallow” wins an Oscar.
Sing (2016) and Sing 2 (2021) jukebox musical.
Dear Evan Hansen (2021) stars Ben Platt.

The Phantom of the Opera by Andrew Lloyd Webber. The 2004 film stars Emmy Rossum and Gerard Butler.
Wicked
Les Miserables
Aladdin
The Lion King
The Book of Mormon
Six

Billy Elliot

Hamilton (2015) by Lin-Manuel Miranda. Burr (Leslie Odom Jr.), Eliza (Phillipa Soo), Washington (Christopher Jackson), Lafayette (Daveed Diggs), King George (Jonathan Groff).

Rock

Rockism: ideology of rock authenticity and art.

Elvis Presley popularizes rockabilly and African American music, including gospel music and rhythm and blues. He is known as the King of Rock and Roll. He releases Hound Dog (1956), Jailhouse Rock (1957), Blue Christmas (1964), If I Can Dream (1968), Memories (1968), Unchained Melody (1977), Don’t Be Cruel (1956), Are You Lonesome Tonight? (1960), Heartbreak Hotel (1956).

• Twist dance.

Rock and roll (1950s): aggressive drums and electric guitar. Snare drum backbeat. Themes of angst, rebellion, and social change.

• Buddy Holly releases That’ll Be the Day (1957), Peggy Sue (1957).
• Jerry Lewis plays intricate piano. Great Balls of Fire (1957).
• Al Green sings Let’s Stay Together (1972).

The Beatles are the best-selling band. John Lennon and Paul McCartney write songs. George Harrison and Ringo Starr.

• Yesterday (1965)
• Michelle (1965) Song of the Year.
• Penny Lane (1967)
• Strawberry Fields Forever (1967)
• Let It Be (1970)

Blues rock: blues structures with a fast tempo.

• The Rolling Stones include singer Mick Jagger and guitarist Keith Richards. (I Can’t Get No) Satisfaction (1965), Honky Tonk Women (1969), “Paint It, Black” (1966).
• Led Zeppelin release the epic Stairway to Heaven (1971), Kashmir (1975), and Black Dog (1971). Guitarist Jimmy Page. It broke off from the Yardbirds, which had guitarist Eric Clapton and pioneered fuzz box feedback and distortion with sitar influence. The Yardbirds release Shapes of Things (1966) and Heart Full of Soul (1965).
• Tears in Heaven (1992) by Eric Clapton. Song of the Year.

Woodstock festival in 1969.
Carlos Santana sings Smooth (1999) and Soul Sacrifice (1969).
Jimi Hendrix sings Purple Haze (1967) and the 15 minute jam Voodoo Chile (1968)
Woody Guthrie writes socialist folk music, including This Land Is Your Land (1940).
Arlo Guthrie releases Alice’s Restaurant (1967), an 18 minute talking blues song.
Bob Dylan sings All Along the Watchtower (1967), Blowin’ in the Wind (1963), The Times They Are a-Changin’ (1964), Like a Rolling Stone (1965), Mr. Tambourine Man (1965).
Joan Baez sings We Shall Overcome (1963) and Here’s to You (1971), a short ode to Italian-American anarchists Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti who were executed for terrorism.
Grateful Dead sing El Paso (1959), Truckin’ (1997), and Dark Star (1968).
Creedence Clearwater Revival sing Vietnam protest song Fortunate Son (1969), Bad Moon Rising, and Proud Mary in 1969.
The Who: Won’t Get Fooled Again (1971), My Generation (1965).
The Beach Boys: In My Room (1963), I Get Around (1964), California Girls (1965), Good Vibrations (1966)
The Temptations: My Girl (1965), Papa was a Rollin’ Stone (1972). Motown.
Jefferson Airplane sing White Rabbit (1967) and Somebody to Love (1966).
Joni Mitchell sings Chelsea Morning (1969) and Woodstock (1970).

• Big Yellow Taxi (1970): “They paved paradise to put up a parking lot”.
  You’ve Got a Friend (1971) by Carole King and James Taylor. Song of the Year.

The Velvet Underground release Heroin (1967), Sunday Morning (1967), and Sweet Jane (1970).
Guns N’ Roses includes singer by Axl Rose and guitarist Slash. Welcome to the Jungle (1987), November Rain (1982), and Sweet Child o’ Mine (1987).
Aerosmith sings Dream On (1973) and Sweet Emotion (1975).
Chuck Berry sings Johnny B. Goode (1958), Roll Over Beethoven (1956), Rock and Roll Music (1957), Maybellene (1955)
Brown Eyed Girl (1967) by Irish singer Van Morrison.
The Allman Brothers Band: At Fillmore East (1971) live album includes a 23-minute version of Whipping Post. Ramblin’ Man (1973) about a man always on the move. Jessica (1973) ballad.

Journey: Don’t Stop Believin’ (1981).
Live Aid concert in 1985
In the 1960s, producer Phil Spector develops the Wall of Sound and works with the Wrecking Crew session musicians in LA.
In the 1990s, music shifts from vinyl to CDs, causing the loudness war which compresses and clips the waveform to have higher average amplitude.

Psychedelic rock

• Pink Floyd release Time (1974), Money (1973) in 7/4 time, Another Brick in the Wall (1979), Wish You Were Here (1975), and Shine On You Crazy Diamond (1974). Bassist Roger Waters and guitarist Syd Barrett.
• Cream is the first supergroup with guitarist Eric Clapton. They release White Room (1968) and Sunshine of Your Love (1967).
• Tame Impala: Let It Happen (2015).

Pop rock (1960s)

• Soft rock (1970s)
  • Neil Diamond: Sweet Caroline (1969).
  • Billy Joel releases Piano Man (1973), Vienna (1977), Just the Way You Are (1977), We Didn’t Start the Fire (1989).
  • Train: Drops of Jupiter (2001) and “Hey, Soul Sister” (2009).
• Glam rock (1970s) is simpler pop rock with flamboyant and feminine fashion.
  • Freddie Mercury and Queen.
    • Bohemian Rhapsody (2018) musical film stars Rami Malek.
    • Bohemian Rhapsody (1975), a progressive rock suite with intro, ballad, opera, hard rock, and coda.
    • We Will Rock You and We Are the Champions in 1977 and Another One Bites the Dust (1980).
    • “Is This the World We Created…?” (1984) and The Miracle (1989).
  • David Bowie sings It’s No Game (1980).
  • Elton John: Goodbye Yellow Brick Road (1973) and the threnody Candle in the Wind (1973). Piano-driven melodic stories.

Punk rock (1970s) fast, hard-edged songs with simple melodies and bare instrumentation. Punk fashion features offensive graphics, leather jackets, spiked jewelry, bondage themes, long hair, T-shirts, torn jeans. Concerts include mosh pits and crowd surfing.

Alt rock (1980s)

• Nirvana makes alt rock mainstream. Includes Dave Grohl and Kurt Cobain. Smells Like Teen Spirit (1991).
• Red Hot Chili Peppers. Snow, Californication (1999), Under the Bridge (1991).
• Radiohead singer Thom Yorke.
• Grunge: Pearl Jam: Alive (1991), Jeremy (1991), Even Flow (1991)
• Tool
• Arcade Fire is an indie band. The Suburbs (2010).

Metal

• Metallica has intricate arrangements, powerful riffs, and emotional lyrics. Master of Puppets (1986), Enter Sandman (1991), and the anti-war song One (1988).
• https://mapofmetal.com

New wave (1970s): synth pop.

• U2
  • Sunday Bloody Sunday (1983) about the Troubles.
  • Miss Sarajevo (1995) with Brian Eno.
  • Sometimes You Can’t Make It on Your Own (2005) Song of the Year.
  • Beautiful Day (2000) Song of the Year.
• Green Day: Boulevard of Broken Dreams (2005), American Idiot (2004) about the Iraq War, Wake Me Up When September Ends.
• The Police and Sting: Roxanne (1978) tango. Every Breath You Take (1983) Song of the Year.
• In the Air Tonight (1981) by Phil Collins.
• Jump (1983) by Van Halen.
• Drive (1984) by The Cars.
• Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark (OMD) pioneers synth-pop. Enola Gay (1980), If You Leave (1986), Maid of Orleans (The Waltz Joan of Arc) (1982), Sailing on the Seven Seas (1981).
• Depeche Mode. Personal Jesus (1989) and the haunting Enjoy the Silence (1990).

Arena rock (AOR): radio-friendly with melody focus

• Eye of the Tiger (1982) by Survivor
• Africa (1982) and Rosanna (1982) by Toto
• Bruce Springsteen sings Born in the U.S.A. (1984) about the treatment of Vietnam vets
• Fun: We Are Young (2011) Song of the Year.

Pop

Teresa Teng Dèng Lìjūn

• 1978. Small Town Story 小城故事
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teresa_Teng

The Rose (1979) by Bette Midler.
George Michael: Careless Whisper (1984).

Michael Jackson is the King of Pop. He popularizes street dance including the moonwalk and the robot in music videos for Beat It, Billie Jean, and Thriller, wearing a single white glove with rhinestones. Uplifting songs including Man in the Mirror, Black or White, Heal the World (1991). His final album, Invincible (2001), cost $30 million with mixed reviews. We Are the World (1986) Song of the Year.

• 1969. Started in the Jackson 5, Motown.

Madonna, the Queen of Pop: Like a Virgin (1984), Like a Prayer (1989), Vogue (1990), Sooner or Later (1990), Frozen (1998), Music (2000), Hung Up (2005), 4 Minutes (2008), and Papa Don’t Preach (1986).

Bjork: It’s Oh So Quiet (1995) and I’ve Seen It All (2000).

Mariah Carey: We Belong Together (2005).
Rod Stewart: Sailing (1975) and The First Cut Is the Deepest (1977)

Electronic music uses synthesizers.

• Techno, house, chiptune, trance, trap.
• https://music.ishkur.com

EDM

• Breakdown is a section with minimal backing. A short break is a cut.
• The beat drop is when the bassline and music comes back in.
• Lollapalooza
• Daft Punk dance music: One More Time (2001), Harder, Better, Faster, Stronger (2001), Get Lucky (2013).
• Sandstorm (1999) by Darude.
• Latin pop
  • Julio Iglesias: La Vida Sigue Igual (1978) ballad
  • Enrique Iglesias: I Like It (2010)
  • Pitbull: I Know You Want Me (2008), Give Me Everything (2011)

Westlife is an Irish boy band. My Love (2000).
Avicii releases The Nights (2014) and Hey Brother (2013)
Imagine Dragons
Coldplay. Yellow (2000) is about unrequited love. Viva la Vida (2008) uses bells and chimes. Clocks (2002) is mixolydian, opens with piano arpeggios. A Sky Full of Stars (2014).
The Chainsmokers sing Something Just Like This (2017).
Kygo sings Firestone (2014).
It’s a Small World (1964) by the Sherman Brothers for Disney theme parks.
Cyndi Lauper: True Colors (1986) and Girls Just Want to Have Fun (1983).
Diplo
Berlin: Take My Breath Away (1986). Best Original Song.
The Weeknd: Blinding Lights (2020)
Nicki Minaj
The Carpenters: Close to You (1970), We’ve Only Just Begun (1970).
The Riddle (1984) by Nik Kershaw
Kate Bush
Lorde: Royals (2013). Song of the Year.
Billie Eilish: Bad Guy (2019) Song of the Year. No Time to Die (2020) Best Original Song.

Somewhere Out There (1986) by Linda Ronstadt and James Ingram. Song of the Year.
Never Gonna Give You Up (1987) by Rick Astley.

Beyoncé sings Crazy in Love (2003), Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It) (2008), If I Were a Boy (2008), Irreplaceable (2006).
Sia: Titanium (2011)
Shakira
Ariana Grande

Taylor Swift

• Love Story (2008). Country pop with banjo, fiddle, mandolin.
• Back to December (2010). A wistful power ballad. Slow-tempo verses build to an emotive chorus, with strings.
• All Too Well (2021).

Ed Sheeran: Castle on the Hill (2017), The A Team (2011).

• Thinking Out Loud (2014) Song of the Year.

Jennifer Lopez. If You Had My Love (1999) and On the Floor (2011).
Rihanna sings We Found Love (2011), Diamonds (2012), and Only Girl (In the World) (2010).

• Umbrella (2007) performed by Tom Holland in Lip Sync Battle.
  Britney Spears sings …Baby One More Time (1999), Oops!… I Did It Again (2000), Womanizer (2008), 3 (2009), and Hold It Against Me (2011).
  Miley Cyrus
  Celine Dion: My Heart Will Go On (1997) Best Original Song.
  Jonas Brothers (2008)
  Justin Bieber: Baby (2010)
  Selena Gomez
  Lady Gaga
  One Direction
  Justin Timberlake
  Tove Lo
  Katy Perry

Chinese
Lu Han sings Medals 勋章 (2015)
Hebe Tien was part of S.H.E. She sings A Little Happiness (2015).

American Idol (2002) on Fox by Ryan Seacrest.
Dick Clark’s New Year’s Rockin’ Eve (1972) with Ryan Seacrest.

Rap

Also known as hip hop.

Sampling reuses a sample of another recording. A loop is a sample that repeats seamlessly.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billboard_and_Vibe%27s_50_Greatest_Rappers_of_All_Time
Lauryn Hill
Beastie Boys (1981)

N.W.A.: Niggaz Wit Attitudes. Deput album Straight Outta Compton features Fuck tha Police (1988) and popularize gangsta rap threatening violence against racism and police brutality. Compton had high violence between the Bloods and Crips.
Dr. Dre was part of N.W.A. Nuthin’ but a ‘G’ Thang (1992), Let Me Ride (1992).
Tupac Shakur or 2Pac is a West Coast rapper and convicted sexual abuser. Dear Mama (1995) for his single mother. Trapped (1991) on police brutality. He was shot dead after feuding with Notorious B.I.G. and the Crips.
U Can’t Touch This (1990) by MC Hammer.

East Coast

• South Bronx originates rap in 1970.
• Sean Combs or Puff Daddy or P. Diddy is accused of rape. I’ll Be Missing You (1997) is a tribute to Notorious B.I.G. It’s All About the Benjamins (1997). Can’t Nobody Hold Me Down (1997) has braggadocio.
• Notorious B.I.G. allegedly put a million-dollar bounty on Tupac. He gets gunned down six months later.
• DMX: X Gon’ Give It To Ya (1998) has a dark, menacing beat.

Jay-Z: Empire State of Mind (2009) popularizes pop influence. Hard Knock Life (1998) has a sample from the musical Annie, braggadocio, and catchy lyrics. The Blueprint (2001) emphasizes vulnerability and self-reflection.
Nas: N.Y. State of Mind (1994) has vivid storytelling about struggles and triumphs. I Gave You Power (1994) criticizes the media’s portrayal of Black people.
Eminem: Lose Yourself (2002) broadens the rap audience. The Real Slim Shady (2000) popularizes braggadocio and wordplay-heavy rap.
Kendrick Lamar: To Pimp a Butterfly features Alright (2005), an anthem on social justice and perseverance. HUMBLE. (2017) has lyrical dexterity, a catchy hook, and braggadocio.

Lil Wayne: A Milli (2008) has rapid lyrics and autotune.
Snoop Dogg: What’s My Name? (1993).
Pharrell: Happy (2013), Hollaback Girl (2005).
David Guetta: Sexy Chick (2009).
Kid Cudi writes personal music on depression, loneliness, and addiction. Day ‘n’ Nite (2008) and Pursuit of Happiness (2009).
Lil Jon: Turn Down for What (2013).

Chris Brown hit his girlfriend Rihanna. Kiss Kiss (2007) has smooth vocals.
Drake is a sexual abuser. Hotline Bling (2015), Best I Ever Had (2009), Started From the Bottom (2013).
Kanye West: Stronger (2007) popularizes sped-up soul samples. He has bipolar disorder.
T.I.: Whatever You Like (2008). T.I. was convicted of drug dealing in 1998 and possession of unregistered machine guns in 2007.

This Is America (2018) by Childish Gambino (aka Donald Glover). Song of the Year.

Sound engineering

• A flat aka linear frequency response is best. It is the Fourier transform of the impulse response.
  • Equalization balances frequencies.
  • Bode plot: frequency vs. magnitude (dB) and phase (degrees)
  • Dynamic range: maximum to minimum loudness
  • Total harmonic distortion (THD): spurious overtones
• Balanced audio: shielded twisted-pair cable and three-pin XLR connector
  • common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR)
• Output impedance is the source internal resistance. Input impedance is the load internal resistance.
  • Damping factor is the loudspeaker impedance (8 Ω) / power amplifier source impedance. Higher damping factor reduces distortion.
  • Impedance bridging if load impedance is higher than the source
  • Impedance matching maximizes power transfer and eliminates reflections.
  • direct input DI unit connects high output impedance unbalanced output signal to a low-impedance, microphone level, balanced input.
• Power amplifier.
  • Preamplifier strengthens weak signal to be noise tolerant and able to be used as speaker input. Placed close to microphone to minimize noise and interference.
  • Audio feedback
  • Gain before feedback
  • Friis formulas for noise
• Transducer: microphone and pickups. Shure is best.
  • dynamic microphone: vibrations produce varying voltage across a coil.
  • condenser microphone: vibrations produce changes in capacitance between two plates. Needs phantom power, DC power applied to both signal wires in balanced microphone cables to operate active electronic circuitry.
• Speaker: subwoofer, woofer, midrange, tweeter. Can be assembled as a line array.
• analog-to-digital (ADC) and digital-to-analog (DAC) converters
• MIDI: musical instrument digital interface
• Sound mixing
  • Mixing console
  • Panning moves apparent position in stereo field
• Effects unit
  • Time effects: reverb, delay, modulation (chorus, flanging, phaser)
  • Distortion or overdrive
  • Pitch shift and autotune
• Noise: white noise, pink noise
• Room acoustics
  • reverberation time RT60 is 2 s for concert halls and <1 s for studios.
  • Acoustic diffusion spreads amplitude and reverb evenly.
  • Frequency zones: high frequencies behave like rays of light. wavelengths over twice as long as the room behave like static air pressure. Room modes dominate at wavelengths around room length.
  • Acoustic mirrors focus sound. Whispering-gallery waves cling to the wall.
• Soundproofing
  • Acoustic foam, drapes, and carpets absorb sound. Acoustic panels and highway noise barriers reflect sound.
  • Sound transmission class rates sound reduction. Constrained-layer damping dampens with viscous material.
  • Active noise cancellation: output noise with opposite phase.
• Incidental music
  • An underscore is a subtle, atmospheric accompanying theme.
  • A vamp or loop is a short section that is repeated continuously until a cue. Often used to provide flexible timing for dialogue or stage action.
  • A sting is a short phrase used as punctuation. Rimshot, dun dun duuun!, etc. A stab is a single staccato note. A fanfare or flourish is a short trumpet blast before the arrival of an important person.
  • Foley reproduces everyday sounds.
  • Apprehension engine produces horror effects.
  • Low bram or BRAAAM foghorn popularized in Inception.
  • Atmospheric droning.

Wind instrument. The fundamental or first harmonic of a tube open at both ends is twice the length. A tube closed at one end has a fundamental that is four times the length, and it will only produce odd harmonics.

Helmholtz resonance can generate or pick out sounds at its resonant frequency. Can be used to dampen sound. Inertia of air leads to perceptible oscillation between high and low pressure.
A loudspeaker enclosure prevents destructive interference between rear-facing and forward-facing sounds waves. The baffle is the panel separating the front and rear areas. Bass reflex uses an air port to increase bass output, at the cost of a resonant tail which creates a boomy, loose sound. A closed box is more accurate, so a kick drum will sound tight, snappy, dry, and punchy.

Music theory

Tuning

• A harmonic series is a sequence of harmonics, partials, or overtones whose frequency is an integer multiple of a fundamental frequency.
• Just intonation or pure intonation uses a single harmonic series.
• 12 equal temperament approximates just intervals (integer ratios) by dividing an octave into 12 equal semitones or half steps on a log scale.

Structure

• A form is the largest shape. Can use similarity, contrast, repetition, variation, speed, and volume. Ternary form is ABA.
• A piece or movement consists of passages. A coda ends the piece.
• A motif is a musical idea or meaningful recurring figure with thematic identity. A figure is a short idea, repeatable, background.
  • A leitmotif is associated with a specific character or idea. The Imperial March.
  • A hook is a catchy, repetitive phrase.
  • A riff is a repeated chord progression, often low and energetic. A riff is a short stock phrase that is a series of notes.
  • A fill is an improvised mini-solo to fill in the gaps between phrases.
• A period usually includes two phrases both beginning with the same motif.
• A phrase expresses a musical idea but lack sufficient weight to stand alone. A cadence ends and resolves a phrase.
• Song structure: verse, pre-chorus, chorus or refrain, bridge, conclusion.
  • intro builds suspense to when the downbeat drops in.
  • Thirty-two-bar form or AABA. Bridge or middle eight has a different melody.
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_structure
• I–V–vi–IV
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%E2%80%93V%E2%80%93vi%E2%80%93IV_progression

A scale is a set of pitches. Can be diatonic or chromatic, and ascending or descending.

• Diatonic modes: major scale or Ionian, Dorian, Phyrgian, Lydian, Mixolydian, natural minor or Aeolian, Locrian.
• Melodic minor or jazz minor
• Harmonic major
• Harmonic minor

A key defines a tonal center or tonic note.

• consonance invokes rest and resolution.
• dissonance is tense, active, harsh, painful, conflicting. Second, tritone, major seventh. It involves beating between harmonics.
• Tonic (I) is the central, most stable chord.
• Supertonic (ii)
• Mediant (iii)
• Subdominant (IV) key has one less sharp.
• Dominant (V) builds tension and anticipation. Key has one more sharp.
• Relative minor (vi).
• Subdominant (IV) adds stability and contrasts with the tonic.
• An interval is a change in pitch. Named by quality and number.
• Closely related keys share many common tones and are useful for modulation.
• Circle of fifths
  • Bb F C G D (key signature)
  • E B F C (added flat or sharp)
• A chord is a group of notes played simultaneously. A chord factor is a component of a chord.
  • A chord is in root position if the root is the lowest note. The third is the lowest note in the first inversion and the fifth in the second inversion.
  • A nonchord tone is not part of the chord.
  • An arpeggio is a broken chord where its notes are played individually in succession.
• A chord progression is a series of chords.

Polyphony involves two or more lines of independent melody.

• The melody is the main vocal line.
• The harmony is a supporting voice that creates chords, chord progressions, and a richer texture. Usually not an independent musical line.
• Voice leading is the art of writing polyphony. Voices should be smooth and conjunct, without awkward jumps or crossing. Voices should be independent without parallel fifths and octaves.
• Species counterpoint defines five species, in increasing complexity: note to note, two notes, four notes, and offset, suspended, or syncopated notes. Composers would practice writing each species against a fixed cantus firmus.
  • Countermelody is a distinct, subordinate melody.

Development manipulates, transforms, and extends a theme, such as by fragmenting and recombining. In contrast, a variation changes one part of the theme will maintaining a direct connection.

• A sequence restates a motif at a higher or lower pitch.
• Dimunition and augmentation: shortening or lengthing time values
• The retrograde plays the melody backwards.
• An inversion flips the melodic contour, the relative change in pitch over time.

Staff notation

• Vertical position on the staff represents pitch.
  • Middle C is 262 Hz.
  • Ledger lines are used for notes above or below the staff.
  • Accidentals (flat ♭ sharp ♯ and natural ♮) modify pitch. An accidental modifies the note for the rest of the measure, unless canceled by a natural.
• Rhythm
  • Meter or pulse group is the pattern of beats and accents.
  • Swing or notes inégales makes the first note in a pair longer.
  • A groove is a propulsive rhythm.
  • Note value is the duration of the note. Whole note is hollow and stemless. Half note is hollow. Quarter note is solid. Eighth note has a beam or flag. A dot increases duration by a half. Bar rest is a black rectangle, and quarter rest is 𝄽.
  • A fermata extends the note longer than its normal duration.
• A repeat sign for a section is denoted by a vertical bar and colon. Da capo means from the beginning, and dal segno means from the sign 𝄋. Coda symbol is 𝄌.
  • Cue notes show important passages being played by other instruments to help with entrance after a long rest. They are printed at 70% size.
• Grand staff combines a treble clef and a bass clef.
• Key signature
  • Circle of fifths:
• Time signature: beats per measure and type of note per beat. Common time is 4/4.
• Tempo
  • Largo: broad, 40–66 bpm
  • Adagio: great expression, 44–66 bpm
  • Andante walking pace, 56–108 bpm
  • Allegro: bright, 120–156 bpm
  • Presto: 168–200 bpm
• Articulation determines how a note is sounded.
  • An accent is played with louder attack or sound, denoted >.
  • Legato notes are played without separation and denoted by a slur. Staccato (“detached”) notes are played with substantial separating silence and denoted by dots or wedges.
  • An ornament is a musical fluourish.
    • A glissando or slide glides from one pitch to another.
    • A trill plays the note fluttering between adjacent notes. A mordant plays the note with a single alternation with the note above or below. A bent note is played curving to a higher pitch and returning.
    • Grace note is a short note nonessential to the melody and harmony.
      • Acciaccatura is played quickly and lightly before the beat. It is drawn with a slash through the stem.
      • Appoggiatura is played on the beat and steals time from the principal note that follows.
    • Coloratura in opera.
• Timbre
  • Envelope describes sound amplitude over time: attack, decay, sustain and release.
  • Dynamics: volume pedal dynamic range compression, noise gate
• Musical expression

Instruments

Voice: soprano, alto, tenor, (baritone), bass.

Keyboard

• Piano
  • Steinway makes the best.
• Pipe organ or harpsichord
• Calliope or steam organ used on riverboats. Very loud.
• Celesta uses hammers to strike pitched steel plates over wooden resonators, famously used in the Dance of the Sugar Plum Fairy from The Nutcracker.

String

• Bowed
  • Violin is small and high. Fiddle emphasizes a brighter folk sound.
    • erhu 二胡 is a middle pitch huqin 胡琴, the two string fiddles.
  • Viola has a richer, deeper sound.
  • Cello has a deep, rich sound. Yo-Yo Ma is the best cellist.
  • Double bass is the lowest sound of the string quartet.
• plucked
  • guitar and bass guitar
  • ukulele is a small, four-string Hawaiian variant strummed with fingers
  • zither
  • Harp is played by plucking
  • lute has a round body and a fretted neck and is played by plucking
    • pipa 琵琶 and the higher-pitched liuqin 柳琴
    • guqin 古琴: Evening song of the drunk fisherman 醉渔唱晚
  • Mandolin is a short fretted neck and is played by plucking with a pick.
• Antonio Stradivari (1700) made the best string instruments.

Woodwind vibrates a reed with a stream of air

• Flute is high-pitched
  • piccolo is half the size and an octave higher
• Soprano oboe is high-pitched and reedy, with a double reed.
  • An English horn or cor anglais is an alto oboe, 1.5 times the length of an oboe.
• Clarinet and bass clarinet.
• Bassoon has the lowest pitch and a double reed.
• Saxophone is brassy.
• Scottish Great Highland bagpipe

Brass instruments vibrate the player’s lips against a metal mouthpiece.

• Trumpet has a high, bright, piercing sound and three valves.
• trombone has a slide to change the pitch
• French horn has a complex, mellow tone
• Tuba has a deep, mellow sound

Percussion

• Drums
  • Tom-tom drums are pitched.
  • Timpani or kettledrums are pitched drums and use mallets to make a deep, resonant sound.
  • Snare drum makes a sharp, cracking sound
  • Bass drum has a low, booming sound
  • Djembe is a West African drum played with hands.
  • Tambourine is a single head with pairs of jingles around the rim.
• Cymbals make a bright, crashing sound. The hi-hat is pedal-operated.
• Triangle makes a high, happy ring.
• gong or tam-tam has a flat surface that produces a crash sound.
• woodblock is a hollow slit drum made of teak or hardwood. A stick makes a sharp crack, and a mallet makes a deep, full knock.
• Keyboard percussion
  • Xylophone is a series of tuned wooden bars with a high, bright sound.
  • Marimba has large wooden bars which make a low, warm, mellow sound.
  • Glockenspiel has metal bars that make a high, bright, tinkling sound.
• Latin music
  • Congas are tall, narrow Latin drums played with hands.
  • Bongos are small, handheld Latin drums played with hands.
  • Castanets are a pair of wooden shells that make a sharp, snapping sound
  • Claves are hardwood dowels struck together for a clicking sound
  • Guiro is a grooved gourd scraped with a stick for a rasping sound
  • Maracas are wood or gourd shakers filled with seeds or beans

Theater

Juilliard is the best school of music.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_Stone%27s_500_Greatest_Songs_of_All_Time
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RIAA_certification
Tiny Desk Concert
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Center_Honors