Geology

• 1669. Nicholas Steno founds modern geology.
• 1753. Carl Linnaeus applies binomial names to plans in Species Plantarum, and extends it to animals in Systema Naturae, 10th edition (1759).
• 1795. James Hutton writes Theory of the Earth.
• 1799. William Smith makes the first geological map.
• 1807. Alexander von Humboldt pioneers ecology and studies the distribution of plants.
• 1833. Charles Lyell writes Principles of Geology.
• 1835. Adam Sedgwick proposes the Cambrian and Devonian periods. He is sexist and anti-evolution.
• 1837. John Gould identifies Darwin’s finches.
• 1844. Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation by Robert Chambers portrays evolution as a divinely planned law. Lower class Radicals use the theory to attack divine justification for the aristocracy.
• 1858. Alfred Russel Wallace studies evolution and biogeography.
• 1859. Charles Darwin: On the Origin of Species proposes evolution. He also writes The Voyage of the Beagle (1839) about the Galapagos islands.
• 1865. Augustinian friar Gregor Mendel proposes Mendelian inheritance after studying heredity in pea plants.
• 1872. Charles Darwin explores conserved emotions including anger, fear, surprise and sadness.

Daniels cell
copper
sulfur (burn and react fumes with water to form sulfuric acid)
zinc ore
fire urn

Ecology

Phylogeny

• A cladogram represents qualitative branching.
• Incomplete lineage sorting. Polymorphisms may persist across speciation events, so that less related species have the same allele.
• Gene flow across species via hybridization or horizontal gene transfer can also produce inaccurate trees.

Population dynamics

• Natural selection: survival of the fittest.
  • Inclusive fitness and kin selection explains altruism.
  • Assortative mating
  • Sexual selection.
  • Signalling theory
• population bottleneck: decrease in population size reduces variation in the gene pool.
  • Founder effect is the bottleneck that occurs when establishing a new population.
• Speciation.
  • Allopatric speciation due to geographic barriers.
• Verhulst model: population changes logistically as dP/dt = rP (1 - P/K)
  • Carrying capacity K and reproductive rate r
  • Opportunistic r-selection organisms have more, smaller, shorter-lived offspring with lower parental investment.
  • Equilibrium k-selection organisms emphasize ability to compete for limited resources.
• Species abundance: plot sampling, and mark and recapture.
• Survivorship curves plot the probability that a newborn survives to an age.
• Population pyramids: developing countries tend to have a high prereproductive population.
• Demographic transition from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates.
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Evolutionary_biology

Ecology

• Interactions: competition, predation, parasitism, commensalism, and mutualism.
  • Müllerian mimicry. Two foul-tasting species share the same honest warning signals to deter common predators. Batesian mimics are harmless species that mimic a harmful species.
• A niche is a functional role, including habitat and interactions.
  • Ecological succession: primary succession on new substrate includes pioneer species.
  • A keystone species shape the habitat. Predators reduce overgrazing. Ecosystem engineers like beavers create habitat. Mutualists pollinate or sustain other species.
• The competitive exclusion principle states that two species do not occupy the same niche.
  • Resource partitioning leads species to specialize in certain foods.
  • Character displacement is a divergence in phenotypes among species in the same habitat.
• Predator-prey interactions can cause boom-bust cycles.
• Food webs show feeding relationships. Tropic levels include producers, primary and secondary consumers, and decomposers.
• Diversity can be measured as species richness (count), Shannon index (entropy), and Simpson index (concentration).
• Landscape ecology
  • Wildlife corridors allow migration and interbreeding to increase genetic diversity.
  • Source-sink dynamics: a patch might not be able to sustain a population independently, but can still have a population due to constant migration.

Soil.

• Soil triangle plots soil texture in terms of sand, silt, and clay composition.
• Loam consists of 40 sand, 40% silt, and 20% clay.
• Infield soil has 60% sand. Most clay from Pittsburgh red bed.
• Dark soil has high organic matter.
• Red soil indicates iron in well-aerated soil. In poorly drained soil, microbes reduce iron, adding blue or green colors and exposing light gray silicates.
• Cation-exchange capacity (CEC) measures the buffer capacity of the soil.
  • Base saturation is the saturation of non-acidic cations: Ca, Mg, K, Na.
• Liming of acidic soil improves plant growth and increases the activity of soil bacteria.
• World Reference Base for Soil Resources
• USDA soil taxonomy
  • Mollisol (7%) is fertile grassland soil. Deep, dark A horizon.
  • Histosol (1%) is wetland soil with peat and muck. 40+ cm of organic material.
  • Oxisol (8%) is highly weathered and leached tropical rainforest soil rich in iron and aluminum oxide but low in silica and nutrients.
  • Ultisol or red clay soil (8%) is weathered subtropic soil with no calcareous material.
  • Podzol (“under-ash”) or spodosol (4%) is coniferous forest soil. Cool climates inhibit soil microbes. Dark acidic organic surface builds up with a leached grey-white subsoil below, then a redeposited or illuviated layer contains complexes of organic matter and iron and aluminium.
  • Gelisol (9%) is permafrost soil. Important for carbon sequestration.
  • Aridisol (12%) is dry desert soil.
  • Entisol (18%) is the youngest soil with no soil horizons. River sediments, volcanic ash, sand dunes.
  • Inceptisol (15%) is young soil with weakly developed soil horizons. Mountain regions and areas
  • Anthrosol is soil heavily modified by long-term human activity from agriculture, irrigation, paddy fields, fertilizer like plaggen (hummus).
• Eluviation or leaching is the transport of soil material by water across soil horizons, which accumulates as illuivial deposits.

Soil horizon

• Litter layer contains recognizable dead leaves.
• O: Organic surface layer or forest floor. Soil surface is the layer after removing the litter layer and living plants.
• A: Surface mineral soil
• B: subsoil

Meteorology and climate

The subsolar point is the point where the Sun is closest or directly overhead.
Spring equinox: equal day and night as the sun crosses the equator.
Summer solstice or midsummer: maximum tilt towards the sun.
Fall equinox: equal day and night as the sun crosses the equator.
Winter solstice: maximum tilt from the sun.

Wind barb gives wind speed and direction.

Atmosphere

• Exosphere to 6,200 miles. Only helium and hydrogen remain.
• Thermosphere to 440 miles. Temperature increases with height.
  • The ionosphere reaches to 342 miles.
  • Atomic oxygen concentration peaks around 100 km, where it has a lifetime of several hours. The fine structure transition from the lowest excited state to the ground state at 63.2 µm is the main cooling mechanism above 250 km. It also excites CO2 and NO by collision.
• Mesosphere to mesopause at 50 miles. Temperature decreases with height. Too high for balloons.
• Stratosphere to 31 miles. Contains the ozone layer, which absorbs UV light causing temperature to increase with height to 0 °C.
• Troposphere to tropopause at 7 miles. Heated from the surface 15 °C and cools to -60 °C.
  • Stratus (“spread out”) clouds are above-ground fog. Radiation fog such as tule fog in the California central valley forms from cooling of land after sunset, which cools the surface layer of air.
  • Cirrus clouds are the highest.
  • Stratocumulus are large masses, altocumulus have distinct patches, and cirrocumulus have small cloudlets.
  • Atmospheric sounding often uses a weather balloon with a radiosonde, which transmits telemetry over radio.
• Planetary boundary layer (PBL): turbulent air and vertical mixing due to surface drag. Wind speed increases up to 100 meters.

Dry air contains 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 1% argon. Also 0.04% or 400 ppm CO2. Air contains 1% water vapor at sea level.

Cloud physics

• Thermal lows: warm regions are low pressure because air rises.
• Wind blows from cold to warm regions.
• Low-pressure areas and troughs can bring clouds and storms.
• A warm front is where warm air replaces cold air, causing warmer, more humid weather. It moves slowly since cold air is hard to remove from the surface. It can be preceded by a nimbostratus (featureless dark gray) and bring steady moderate precipitation. It is marked with a red line of semicircles pointing in the direction of travel.
• A cold front lies in a trough of low pressure, can bring thunderstorms, and usually moves east. It is marked with a blue line of triangles pointing in the direction of travel. Often brings a squall line of thunderstorms.
• An inversion is a layer of warmer air above colder air. It acts as a cap on convection, trapping air pollution close to the ground.
  • The ocean can cool the surface layer of air, forming a marine layer. Evaporation increases humidity.
• The dewpoint is the temperature at which air becomes saturated.
  • A hydrolapse is a rapid vertical change in dewpoint.
• Hydrostatic equilibrium: upward pressure gradient force balances gravity.
• An air parcel is a small chunk of air, which we assume will remain isolated from its environment except for pressure as it moves vertically.
  • An air parcel which is warmer than its environment will have positive buoyancy.
  • Dry air parcels cool at 10 °C/km, and wet ones cool at 6 °C/km.

Atmospheric river

• Pineapple Express: warm ocean air causing heavy rain on the Pacific coast. Part of the jet stream.

Downslope winds are warm, dry air masses falling from mountains.

• Foehn wind: dry wind in the wind shadow of mountains.
  • Chinook winds from the Rocky Mountains.
• Katabatic wind (“moving downward”): air in elevated areas loses heat faster at night due to clearer skies and thinner atmosphere.
  • Santa Ana winds from the Great Basin desert into LA and southern California.
• Anabatic wind (“moving upward”): upslope flow driven by insolation (solar heating) during the day.

Tornados and cyclogenesis

• Warm air rises.
• Lapse rate is the vertical decrease in temperature, around 6.5 °C/km.
  • Dry adiabatic lapse rate around 10 °C/km
• An unstable atmosphere has a high lapse rate, causing a strong buoyant force which drives a thermal column or updraft. A stable atmosphere discourages vertical motion.
• Convective Available Potential Energy (CAPE) integrates buoyant force over height. High CAPE = thunderstorm updrafts.
  • In fair weather, instability layers are short, making cumulus clouds.
• As moisture condenses in an air parcel, the latent heat of condensation warms the parcel, further increasing buoyant force.
• Cyclones around a low-pressure center.
  • Tropical cyclone: warm temperatures.
  • subtropical cyclone: no weather fronts.
  • Extratropical cyclones in the mid-latitudes. Weather fronts with rapid change in temperature and dew point.
    • Nor’easter winter storms around the US northeast with heavy rain. Polar Canadian air meets warm ocean waters.
• Thunderstorms form from cumulonimbus clouds, which can have updrafts over 100 mph.
  • Single-cell thunderstorms last around 30 minutes with a 15 mile diameter.
  • Moderate vertical wind shear produces multicell storms which can last hours.
  • Strong vertical wind shear separates the updraft and downdraft, producing a supercell storm with a single rotating updraft.
    • A mesocyclone forms where speed shear creates smaller diameter and higher rotation on the ground.
    • A tornado or waterspout forms when the condensation funnel reaches the ground.
  • CAPE is increased by low level warm air advection, daytime heating, low level moisture advection (high low level dewpoint), and upper level cold air advection (cooling temperature in mid-levels).
  • CAPE = 1/2 (Max upward velocity)^2 assuming no water loading (carrying condensed water), drag, or entrainment of surrounding air.
  • Helicity is higher with low level inflow, speed shear and directional shear.
  • Severe Weather Threat Index (SWEAT): low level moisture, convective potential, low and mid level winds, and wind shear.
• Water temperatures of 27 °C cause instability and tropical cyclones.
• Skew-T log-P diagram is a thermodynamic diagram with isothermal lines are plotted at 45°.
  • Lines of equal saturation mixing ratio (water vapor grams / dry air kg) run down and to the right.
• Winds circle counter-clockwise in the northern hemisphere due to Coriolis forces.

Atmospheric circulation

• Hadley cell in the tropics.
  • Air rises from the equator and descends in the 30° horse latitudes or subtropical ridge.
  • Horse latitudes are the hottest areas due to clear skies. Dry, hot deserts on the western side of continents.
  • Azores High in the horse latitudes northwest of Africa. Anticyclonic, driving the gulf stream and sends tropical waves to central America and the US.
  • Anticyclone rotates around a high pressure region.
  • Tropical upper tropospheric trough from subsidence warming near the tropopause.
  • Trade winds flow to the equator and are deflected west by the Coriolis effect, because the earth rotates eastwards.
• The jet stream blows east. It is warm air from the equator which moves faster than ground speed.
• Mid-latitude Ferrel cell. Westerlies blow east from the horse latitudes to the 60° polar front.
• Polar cell. Air sinks at the poles and rises at the polar front, blowing west in between.
  • Polar vortices rotate in the direction of the Earth’s spin due to Coriolis effect.
• Differential heating between land and sea causes monsoons.
  • In the summer, land heats faster and oceans winds cause heavy rain.
  • In the winter, land cools faster causing offshore winds and a dry season.
• The intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) traps moist air, causing heavy rain and lower temperatures.
  • The thermal equator follows the Sun’s overhead position with a 1 month lag. It shifts north of the equator in the northern hemisphere summer.
  • The monsoon trough is the line of lowest pressure, causing peak rain.
• Rossby waves are giant meanders of the jet stream and ocean currents.
• Levels of scale
  • Microscale below 1 km.
  • Mesoscale below 100 km
  • Synoptic around 1,000 km

Ocean currents

• The Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) is a warm, salty surface flow north and a cool, deep flow south. It includes the Gulf Stream, which brings warm water up the east coast.
• North Atlantic Gyre. Wind drives the warm gulf stream up the east coast and extends into the North Atlantic Current, making northwest Europe much more temperate. The gulf stream becomes saltier and sinks in the Icelandic low near Greenland, forming the North Atlantic Deep Water which flows to the Southern Ocean as part of the thermohaline circulation or meridional overturning circulation.
  • North Atlantic oscillation (NAO): pressure difference between Azores and Iceland determines the strength of westerly winds.
• North Pacific Gyre. Cold water flows down the west coast.
• South Pacific Gyre. The Humboldt Current brings polar water up the west coast of Peru, cooling its tropical region.
• Trade winds push water west. It builds up in the west Pacific, which is 10 °C warmer than the east Pacific and has more clouds and rain. Ocean upwelling occurs in the east Pacific.
• East Pacific is cooler
  • upwelling of cold water
  • Humboldt Current carries cold water from the Southern Ocean.
  • West Pacific is warmer with lower air pressure and more rain.
  • Walker circulation of air: air flows to the low pressure West Pacific, where it rises and returns east. West Pacific sea surface is 60 cm higher.
• El Niño: warmer east Pacific and weaker trade winds. Occurs every 2-7 years and lasts around a years.
  • El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is the air component.
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Atlantic_Deep_Water#/media/File:Climate-tipping-points-en.svg

Climate change

• Greenhouse gases absorb infrared radiation. They have bending vibration modes with at least three atoms.
• Gaia hypothesis states that organisms that ensure their environment is hospital are more fit.
• Warming feedback loops
  • Melting sea ice lowers albedo (reflectivity). Sea level rise also lowers albedo.
  • Warmer sea temperatures leads to lower dissolved carbon dioxide.
  • Melting permafrost releases solid methane hydrate.
• Global temperature has risen from 13.8 °C to 15 °C.
• The UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (1988) forecasts climate change.
• Consequences of warming
  • More evaporation and more powerful tropical storms and floods.
  • Less snowfall and more drought.
  • More wildfires.
  • More heat waves.
  • Increasing range of pests and disease.
  • Warm air holds more water, causing more global rainfall.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Deforestation_and_desertification

Ecoregions

Tropics defined by the northern Tropic of Cancer and southern Tropic of Capricorn at 23°27’. Köppen climate classification includes:

• tropical rainforest (Af)
• tropical monsoon (Am)
• tropical savanna (Aw/As).
• Arid climate
  • deserts (BWh/BWk) are dry rocky or sandy surfaces. Some form in the rain shadow on the leeward side of a mountain.
  • semi-arid steppes (BSh/BSk) have grassland plains or shrubs. Less rain than potential evapotranspiration.
    • Montane grasslands and shrublands
• Dunes are longer on the stoss side with a shorter slip face on its lee.
  • Singing sand has round silica grains around 0.1 mm diameter.
• Antidunes migrate counter to the flow direction.

Subtropics extend to 35°

• Mediterranean climates (Csa, Csb) have a dry summer from arid desert winds, and wet oceanic winters.
• Humid subtropical (Cfa) and monsoon subtropical (Cwa) have long, hot and humid summers

Temperates

• Oceanic (Cfb) have warm summers, cool winters, and even cloudy rain through the year.
• Humid continental
  • Temperate broadleaf and mixed coniferous forests
• grassland or prairie has <5% trees. Savanna has an open canopy.

Polar regions

• Subpolar oceanic and and cold subtropical highland (Cfc, Cwc)
• Cold summer mediterranean climates (Csc)
• Subarctic
• Taiga
• Tundra
• Ice cap

Wetlands

• fens, pocosins, and peat swamp forests
• peatlands, bogs, mires, moors, or muskegs.
• A barrier island is a coastal dune along a coast formed by waves.
• A bank is land alongside a body of water.
• An isthmus is a narrow land bridge.
  • A tombolo is a sandy isthmus. Often steep due to easy drainage decreasing backwash erosion and encouraging sedimentation.
• A shingle beach is a narrow gravel beach.
• A swale is a sunken, marshy channel. Often maintained as infiltration basins.
• Contour trenching increases water percolation on hills.
• A shoal or sandbar are linear ridges close to the water surface. Develops where currents promote deposition and localize shallowing (shoaling).
• A lagoon is a shallow body separated from a larger body by a narrow landform, such as a reef, peninsula, or isthmus.
  • An atoll is a ring-shaped island around a lagoon.
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Wetlands

Water

• Photic zone
  • Littoral zone is closest to shore, with rooted plants.
    • Longshore drift: waves transports sediments down a coast.
  • Limnetic zone
  • Surface layer and thermocline
• Aphotic zone
  • Biological pump of marine snow (organic detritus) falling from the photic zone.
  • profundal and benthic zone
• Benthic zone on the sea floor.
• An estuary is a brackish transition zone from rivers to the ocean.
• A stream is running surface water within the bed and banks of a channel.
  • A river is large. A smaller, more intermittent stream is a creek or brook.
  • A tributary contributes to a stream.
  • A runnel is a channel between parallel shoals or ridges.
• Man-made: canal, channel, reservoir
• Puddle is temporary
• Bay
• Lake
  • A tarn is a mountain lake formed in a cirque excavated by a glacier.
  • A moraine is an accumulation of unconsolidated, loose, heterogeneous regolith debris or glacial till, which can form a natural dam.
  • Volcanic crater lake or maar.
  • Meromictic lake has layers that do not mix. Lake Nyos disaster was a very rare limnic eruption or lake overturn that killed 1,700 people within 16 mi and released 100,000 tons of CO2.
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Glaciers
  • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Ponds

Geology

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Geologic_Principles

Stratigraphy studies rock layers

• principle of original horizontality: layers are originally deposited in horizontal layers (except in overturning). Folded and tilted strata are due later geological action.
• Principle of lateral continuity: sediment is deposited in continuous layers.
• Law of superposition: oldest strata on the bottom.
  • Marker horizons of tephra, such as the iridium anomaly at the Cretaceous–Paleogene (K-Pg) boundary.
  • Paleomagnetism based on geomagnetic reversals.
• Cross-cutting relationships are younger.
• Principle of faunal succession: fossils succeed each other in a reliable order.
  • Diagnostic species or index fossils like foraminifera and ostracods have fast turnover and wide distribution.
  • Palynology: study of pollen and other microscopic acid-resistant organic remains (palynomorphs) for dating.
• Law of included fragments: clasts in a rock are older than the rock itself.
• Harris matrix describes the temporal succession of archaeological contexts.
• Sadler effect: thinner sections, which span shorter amounts of time, record faster sediment accumulation rates than thicker sections
• Laminae are fine layers in sedimentary rock, typically below 1 cm, due to cyclic changes in organic or mineral grain size or composition. Occurs in quiet water. A varve is an annual layer.
• A bed or stratum is a coherent layer bounded by bedding planes.
• An assise is multiple beds with the same characteristic species.
• A geological formation has consistent lithology–physical characteristics such as color, texture, grain size, and composition.

Plate tectonics

• Oceanic plates subduct under less dense plates at convergent boundaries, forming volcanic arcs. Continental arc when it subducts under continental crust.
• Continental crust rarely subducts. Acasta Gneiss in Canada contains the oldest rock at 4 Ga.
• Divergent boundaries produce mid-oceanic ridges and rift valleys.
• A transform fault is a strike-slip fault between plates.
• An unconformity is a erosional or non-depositional break between strata of different ages due to discontinuous sediment deposition.

Strike is the azimuth (compass direction) of the strike line.
Dip is the angle measured downward from horizontal.

Normal fault: hanging wall moves down.
Reverse fault: hanging wall moves up due to compression.

• Thrust fault has a dip less than 45 degrees. Causes older strata to overlie younger strata.

Volcanos

• Cinder cones are built of cinders, clinkers, or scoria from a cylindrical vent which erupts viscous, silicate, gas-rich lava.
• Stratovolcanoes or composite volcanos are built from alternating layers of lava, ash, and tephra (rock ejecta), such as Mount Fuji, Mount Saint Helens, and Mount Rainier.
• Shield volcanos forms from fluid basaltic lava, such as Mauna Loa, the largest volcano, and Olympus Mons on Mars.
• Lava domes are small, steep domes of viscous lava.
• A phreatic eruption is an explosion of steam
  • A phreatomagmatic eruption produces steam and magma. Can produce a broad maar crater surrounded by a low tuff ring of tephra fragments.

Structure of the Earth

The Earth consists of crust, mantle, and core.

Elemental composition and Goldschmidt classification.

• Crust consists of oxygen 46%, silicon 28%, aluminum 8.3%, iron 5.6%, calcium 4.2%, sodium 2.5%, and magnesium 2.4%.
• Mantle has more magnesium, which is heavier than aluminum.
• Volatile atomspheric gases including carbon and nitrogen escape to space and are more rare.
• Iron-soluble siderophiles, including most precious metals, sink to the core and are rare in the crust.
• Chalcophile combine in sulfide ores.
  • Tellurium and selenium are depleted because they form volatile hydrides.

The outer silicate solid crust. The base of the crust is around 5 km beneath the ocean floor and 30 km beneath continental crust, less than 1% of Earth’s radius. Temperature increases by 30 °C/km. Basalt P-waves travel at 7 km/s. Continental crust contains 41% feldspar, 12% quartz, and 11% pyroxene.

The Moho discontinuity separates crust and mantle, which consists of molten magma. Waves increase in speed.

Lithospheric mantle consists of hard, non-convecting peridotite or dunite, with P-waves of 8 km/s. Oceanic mantle is 100 km thick and continental mantle is 200 km thick. The lithosphere consists of crust and lithospheric mantle, and is divided into tectonic plates that move over the asthenosphere.

The asthenosphere (“without strength”) is a warmer ductile region of upper mantle starting at the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary (LAB) at the 1,300 °C isotherm. Peridotite. It mostly coincides with the seismic low-velocity zone (LVZ).

The transition zone between upper and lower mantle occurs at around 410–660 km depth. It consists of wadsleyite to 520 km, then ringwoodite. Wave velocity increases by 1 km/s at each transition as modulus increases.

The lower mantle extends to 2,891 km depth. It consists of silicate perovskite (mostly bridgmanite) to 2,685 km, then post-perovskite.

At the core-mantle boundary (CMB), P-waves drop from 14 to 7 km/s and S-waves disappear.

The fluid outer core acts as a dynamo. Heat flow from the inner core drives convection currents that are organized into rolls by the Coriolis force and generate Earth’s magnetic field. The core-mantle boundary (CMB) has a 3,480 km radius and 4,000 °C.

The solid inner core is a nickel-iron alloy with a radius of 1,220 km (20% of Earth) and a surface temperature of 5,400 °C.

Rock cycle

The rock cycle consists of burial and uplift.

• Igneous rock is solidified magma.
  • Intrusive rock cools slowly below the surface are coarse-grained.
    • Phanerite, abyssal, or plutonic rock is deepest.
    • Subvolcanic or hypabyssal rock forms above 2 km depth.
  • Extrusive rock cools on the surface and are fine-grained.
    • Aphanite is rock with crystals that are invisible without magnification.
    • Volcanic glass is rapidly cooled. Includes obsidian, as well as vesicular scoria and pumice.
  • Porphyritic rock has crystals of different sizes, with larger phenocryst inclusions.
• Sedimentary rock forms from weathering, erosion, transportation, deposition, burial, compaction, cementation, and lithification.
  • A rhythmite has periodic layers of sediment or sedimentary rock. Varve is an annual rhythmite, since spring has coarser particles from higher flow rates.
  • Clastic rocks are transported as clasts or solid fragments. Sandstone is medium-grained. Shale is fine-grained and cleaves in fine layers.
  • Organic sedimentary rocks contains plant matter. Peat often forms in stagnant, acidic swamps which limit decay. Lignite coal forms at 50 °C. Bituminous coal forms at depths over 1,000. Anthracite coal forms at depths over 5,000 m and 150 °C and has the densest carbon.
  • Chemical rocks are transported as ions in solution.
    • Limestone precipates from lime-rich water. Travertine is a porous, lightweight, insulating rock and popular building material. It is deposited around hot springs such as in Yellowstone.
  • Biochemical rocks form from calcium carbonate or silica body parts.
• Metamorphic rock is transformed under heat and pressure.
  • Foliated rocks have aligned crystals and form from shale. Slate (150 °C) cleaves in flat sheets. Phyllite (300 °C) has a satin texture. Schist (450 °C) forms visible, sparkly mica crystals. Gneiss (550 °C) forms bands of minerals.
  • Marble
  • Nonfoliated rocks. At 450 °C, limestone calcite recrystallizes into marble and sandstone becomes quartzite.

Igneous differentiation

Magma differentiates via fractional crystallization and partial remelting.

• Minerals with higher melting points crystallize first.
• Rocks contain minerals that crystallize within a similar temperature range.
• Silica-rich minerals have a lower melting point and melt first.
• Primary melt represents the original composition of a magma.
• Mantle can fully melt into ultramafic magma, or partially melt into mafic magma. Magma is less dense and rises.
• Earlier-forming crystals settle out of solution, leaving behind a more felsic magma.
• Incompatible elements concentrate in the melt because they do not easily fit into mantle crystals.
  • large-ion lithophile elements LILE: K, Rb, Cs, Ba
  • high-field strength elements HFSE have high valence: rare-earth elements, Zr, Nb, Hf
• Magma series
• More mafic: less silica -> less branching -> high melting point. High iron and magnesium, darker, denser, more oceanic, less viscous.
• Ultramafic forms above 1,600 °C and is the oldest, since the mantle has cooled since. Less than 45% silica.
  • Classified by relative proportions of olivine, clinopyroxenite Cpx, and ortopyroxenite Opx.
  • Olivine {Mg,Fe2+}2 SiO4 is an island silicate, not polymerized. Hardness 6.5, imperfect cleavage in two directions. Peridot is the gem variety. Magnesium-rich olivine crystallizes earlier than iron-rich.
  • Pyroxene is a single-chain silicate.
  • Rock: peridotite (intrusive) and komatiite (extrusive).
• Mafic forms above 1,100 °C, below 52% silica.
  • Mafic lavas are fluid, forming low-profile shield volcanoes or flood basalts. It flows as smooth, hotter pahoehoe lava or cooler aa lava containing solid clinkers, or forms pillow lava underwater with a solid crust.
  • Classified by proportion of anorthosite, Cpx, and Opx.
  • Amphibole or hornblende is a double chain silicate.
  • Calcium-rich feldspar.
  • Rock: gabbro (I) and basalt (E). Over 90% of volcanic rock is basalt.
• Intermediate rock forms above 850 °C, below 63% silica.
  • Biotite or black mica is a sheet silicate.
  • Rock: diorite (I) and andesite (E)
• Felsic are the last to crystallize, with over 63% silica. Lighter. Viscous and flows as block lava from stratovolcanoes.
  • Muscovite or common mica is a sheet silicate.
  • K-feldspar is a framework silicate, second-lowest melting point.
  • Quartz is a framework silicate which melts at 700 °C.
    • A framework silicate or tectosilicate is SiO2 in a 3D framework of silicate tetrahedra.
  • Rock: granite (I), dacite (E, low alkali), rhyolite (E).
• Alkaline magma has more sodium and potassium and originates from deeper in the mantle.

Bowen’s reaction series

• Discontinuous branch: when existing crystals cool, they can react with the remaining magma and transform into the mineral in the series. MgO and CaO appear in earlier crystals, while alkali appear in later crystals.
• Continuous branch: plagioclase feldspar is a solid solution where sodium and calcium atoms can substitute for each other in the crystal structure. They initially crystallize calcium-rich (anorthite) but continually react while cooling to become sodium-rich (oligoclase).
• Goldich dissolution series: crystals with lower melting points are more stable and slower to weather at ambient temperature.

Other differentiation processes

• Magma mixing and rejuvenation.
• Assimilation: mafic magma melts and mixes with felsic crust. Xenoliths are unmelted rock inclusions.
• Liquid immiscibility
  • silicate-carbonate
  • sulfide liquids in silicate
  • SiO2 and FeO.

Total Alkali Silica TAS diagram classifies by silica vs. alkali (Na2O + K2O).

• Peralkaline magma has more alkali than alumina. Normal alkali forms feldspar, while excess alkali forms aegerine (sodium pyroxene) and riebeckite (sodium amphibole).
• Alkaline magma series from picrite basalt or ankaramite.
• Subalkaline magma series
  • tholeiitic from reduced magma.
  • calc-alkaline from oxidized magma (higher oxygen fugacity). Rich in alkaline earths MgO and CaO. Precipitates some magnetite. Associated with continental arcs.
  • Mineral redox buffers produce or consume oxygen to maintain a preferred fugacity at a given temperature. Hematite or Fe3+ is the most oxidizing, while elemental iron is the most reducing.

QAPF diagram classifies felsic rocks by proportion of Quartz, Alkali feldspar, Plagioclase, and Foid. Foid and Quartz are exclusive.

Feldspar: aluminum tectosilicate.

• Alkali feldspar like orthoclase has potassium (K-feldspar) or sodium.
  • Moonstone rock has adularescence, a milky, bluish, interior luster arising from diffraction through alternating layers (lamellae) of alkali feldspars.
• Plagioclase has sodium and calcium.
  • Labradorite is intermediate to calcic. It displays labradorescence, an iridescence arising from phase exsolution lamellar separation of 128-252 nm due to slow cooling in the presence of a miscibility gap.
• Sunstone rock has aventurescence, a metallic glitter arising from platy inclusions of minute scales of red copper, hematite, or goethite parallel to the principal cleavage-plane.

Feldspathoid (foid rock) is a silica-undersaturated tectosilicate. Rare.

• Syenite.
• Sodalite is sodium aluminosilicate, 5 hardness, fluorescent. Blue color from trisulfur radical anions (S3•−) which substitute for chloride anions within the sodalite structure. The anion has high absorptivity at 595-620 nm.
• Lazurite is in the sodalite group.
• Lapis lazuli is an intense blue lazurite rock usually with pyrite and calcite inclusions. Used for ornamental carvings and ground to form ultramarine pigment.

Minerals

Grinding, cutting, faceting, and polishing improves the scintillation and brilliance of the rough gem, but is difficult for minerals with perfect cleavage.

Diamond is an isotropic cubic crystal with 0.044 dispersion, 440 GPa bulk modulus. A carat is 200 mg. High thermal conductivity of 22 W/(cm K). High 5.45 eV band gap. High breakdown voltage of 10 mV/cm. High chromatic dispersion.

• Type I: N > 5 ppm. >98% of natural diamond. Absorption edge ~330 nm.
  • Mostly ocathedral due to uneven pressure.
• Type II: N <5 ppm. Absorption edge ~220 nm.
  • Type IIa has N as the major impurity, electrically insulating.
  • Type IIb is B-doped to make a p-type semiconductor. Can have a blue hue.
    • No feasible n-type dopant–N has too high binding energy and P is too large.
• Surface terminates in C=O or C-OH bonds. Plasma treatment can terminate with C-H bonds.
• 1954. Howard Hall synthesizes diamond under high temperature high pressure (HTHP). 5 GPa at 1,600 C. metal solvent dissolves the graphite. Cubic press has higher surface area to volume ratio. $200k/machine. Mostly Type Ib, with single N substitutions, which can give a yellow hue.
  • Aluminum, titanium, and zirconium (“getters”) absorb impurities
  • Nitrogen doping gives a yellow or brown hue. Radiation moves N atoms to gaps or N-vacancy centers which give a pink hue.
  • Detectable traces of the iron and cobalt catalyst.
• 1980. Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) synthesis. Microwaving to 3,00 C forms atomic hydrogen, which inhibits graphite formation. Vacuum chamber is easier to control. Mostly Type IIa. Detectable via pinpricks of graphite.
• X-ray tomography by TOMRA used to find the largest diamonds before breaking.
• Botswana (Lucara Karowe mine), Lesotho, Sierra Leone, Angola
• https://detail.1688.com/offer/751071300271.html

Moissanite: silicon carbide, 9.25 hardness, 0.104 dispersion, birefringent.
Cubic zirconia: zirconium dioxide, 8 hardness.
Zircon Zr(SiO4), 7.5 hardness. Brittle, no cleavage, high brilliance and dispersion. Heating brown zircon without oxygen turns it blue.

Corundum: transparent aluminum oxide Al2O3, 9 hardness, no cleavage, fluorescent. Heat treatment or irradiation can intensify color.

• Sapphire. Fe2+ or Ti4+ substitutions create localized areas of charge imbalance, and intervalence charge transfer absorbs yellow light. Notable mines in Ratnapura (“City of gems”) in Sri Lanka.
  • Star sapphire has asterism (star-shaped concentration of light) when cut en cabochon (a domed, polished oval). It contains sub-microscopic inclusions of rutile (titanium dioxide) needles oriented with three-fold symmetry. Corundum has a refractive index of 1.8, while rutile is 2.6. refract light.
• Ruby is red due to chromium substitutions. Fluoresces red under UV light, intensifying color. The Verneuil process creates synthetic ruby via flame fusion of ruby powder. Flux growth or pulling from molten material is also used.

Topaz: aluminum and fluorine silicate Al2SiO4F2, 8 hardness. Relatively abundant and clear. One weak plane of perfect cleavage.

Spinel: MgAl2O4, hardness 8, no cleavage, confused with ruby until 1783.

Emerald is a beryl (Be3 Al2 Si6 O18), hardness 7.5, no cleavage. Green from chromium or vanadium impurities. Often has tree-like inclusions (jardin) which can reduce clarity. Often waxed or oiled to fill surface-reaching fractures to improve clarity and color. Majority mined in Colombia and Zambia.

• Aquamarine is a beryl containing iron, a pale blue-green.
• Chrysoberyl, beryl aluminate, can have a cat’s eye effect (chatoyancy). A silky, lustrous band of reflected light that shifts based on the viewer’s position. Caused by intergrowth of quartz and crocidolite (blue asbestos). Crocidolite is a type of amphibole asbestos, which forms needle-like fibers.

Garnet. Family including pyrope, almandine, spessartine, grossular, and androdite.

Quartz: silica (silicon dioxide), 7 hardness, no cleavage. Second most abundant mineral in the continental crust. Crystal habit is a hexagonal prism with a hexagonal termination pyramid on each end. Alternating faces of the pyramid can have different colors, causing a pinwheel effect. Silica particles cause silicosis and pulmonary fibrosis. Often grows as a druse or geode, a layer of crystals lining a void.

• Amethyst 紫水晶 is purple due to iron or irradiation
• Opal is hydrated amorphous silica, which can have iridescence: change in color based on the angle of view due to wave interference. Also fluorescent.
• Aventurine rock has aventurescence, a metallic glitter arising from platy inclusions of minute scales of mica or chrome-bearing fuchsite, hematite, or goethite.
• Chalcedony is a cryptocrystal (aggregate of microscopic crystals) with translucent fibers intergrown with moganite. Used in ornamental carvings. Fluorescent.
  • Onyx has multi-colored straight bands.
  • Agate has multi-colored curved bands.
  • Carnelian is a reddish orange.
  • Jasper is usually red due to Fe3+ inclusions.
  • Tiger’s Eye has gold, red-brown, or blue fibers causing chatoyancy.
• Rose quartz has trace titanium, iron, or manganese.

Tourmaline. Aluminum borosilicate family, 7 hardness, no cleavage. Pink from manganese, green from iron, chromium, or vanadium.
Jade: calcium, magnesium, iron, silicate, 6 hardness

• Jadeite NaAlSi2O6, hardness 6.5.
• Nephrite termolite
  Turquoise
  Carnelian
  Aquamarine

Apatite Ca5(PO4)3(F,Cl) has hardness 5, is brittle, is fluorescent.

Fluorite CaF2 has hardness 4. Irradiation releases calcium colloids (clumps) from the crystal structure, causing a deep purple color associated with uranium deposits. Source of the term fluorescence.

Carbonate

• Karst topography is a polje (large low plain) with ponor (openings where surface water enters underground), caves, and sinkholes.
  • A cenote is a sinkhole that exposes a groundwater lake.
• CaCO3
  • Calcite is the most common carbonate. It has perfect cleavage in three directions. Fluorescent.
  • Aragonite is fluorescent.
• Dolomite is CaMg(CO3)2.

Anhydrite is calcium sulfate, which becomes gypsum when hydrated. Gypsum crystallizes into selenite (fluorescent) or alabaster with hardness 2.

Scheelite CaWO4 is a tungsten ore. Fluorescent.

Sphalerite ZnS or FeS is the main zinc ore. Fluorescent.

Kaolinite is a clay mineral or hydrous aluminum phyllosilicate. A phyllosilicate has parallel sheets of silicate tetrahedra. In kaolinite the oxygen atoms link silica to octahedral sheets of alumina. It has low shrink–swell capacity. It is used as a brilliant, smooth, absorbent paper coating with up to 25% of paper mass.

Serpentinization produces serpentinite from olivine and pyroxene.

• Serpentine subgroup or serpentinite: iron or magnesium phyllosilicate.
• Schikorr reaction: 3Fe(OH)2 -> Fe3O4 (magnetite) + H2 + 2 H2O

Very rare gems:

• Rutile TiO2. Dark red to black with high refraction and dispersion.
• Cassiterite SnO2. Too dark to be a gem.
• Pyrite or Marcasite iron sulfide FeS2 used as small stones, or melee.
• Scapolite {Na4 Al3 Si9, Ca4 Al6 Si6} O24 {Cl, CO3}
• Sinhalite MgAl(BO4)
• Phenakite Be2SiO4
• Kornerupine Mg3 Al6 {Si,Al,B}5 O21 OH
• Cordierite Mg2 Al4 Si5 O18. Iolite is the intense blue gem variety.
• Benitoite BaTiSi3O9. Blue with high dispersion.
• Zoisite Ca2 Al3 (Si2O7) (SiO4) O (OH). Thulite is the pink variety. Tanzanite is an intense blue variety.
• Euclase BeAlSiO4(OH).
• Diopside CaMgSi2O6 is in the pyroxene group.

Too soft:

• Cuprite Cu2O is an intense red.
• Rhodochrosite MnCO3 is pink to brown. It is mined at San Luis, Argentina since the early 1900s.
• Tektite is a glass (SiO2) melted from asteroid impact. Only four sources are known, of which Moldavite from an impact in Germany 15 mya is the most common.
• Andalusite, Sillimanite, Kyanite Al2SiO5. Perfect cleavage. Kyanite is intense blue.
• Titanite CaTi(SiO4)O. High refraction and dispersion, but too brittle.
• Vesuvianite Ca19 Fe3+ Al4 (Al6Mg2) Si18 O69 (OH)9.

Industrial Minerals And Their Uses (1996) by Clullo

Monoammonium phosphate (MAP) aka Ammonium Dihydrogen Phosphate (ADP) and KDP grow nice crystals used in laser optics.

• Dissolve 60 g MAP/100 mL hot water and cool.
• Grow seed crystals: sprinkle MAP powder and wait 1 day.
• Transfer to more dilute solution (45 g/mL). Too concentrated causes rapid growth and opaque impurities.
  • Add 0.8 g alum/100 mL to make thinner, more distinct, spikier crystals. Less alum for clear single crystals.
• Impurities cause rough, jagged, opaque growth. Recrystallization improves purity.
• Exposing the crystal to air causes rough dull edges.
• Alum grows octahedral crystals. 18 g/100 mL. Coat in nail polish to prevent dehyration, which turns it white.
• Copper sulfate grows deep blue crystals. Mildly toxic.
  • CaSO4 impurities form small needles everywhere
• Copper metal: sacrifice copper anode (+) to form crystals on copper cathode. 30 V, 10 mA for 9 days.

Oil

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraction_of_petroleum

Mining

• overburden is worthless rock above the ore deposit.
• gangue is worthless rock mixed with ore, which needs to be processed.
• Mineral processing or ore dressing
  • Comminution reduces particle size
    • Spalling: break up raw ore with hammers.
    • Crushing uses compression and impact forces
      • jaw crushers, gyratory crushers and cone crushers
    • Grinding in a mill uses attrition force with rod mills and ball mills.
      • Usually a wet process which is more energy intensive.
    • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_size_analysis
    • Physical separation includes sizing: gravity separation uses weight alone. magnetic separation. dense medium separation (DMS), flotation
      • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ore_sorting
      • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_cyclone
      • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrocyclone
      • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trommel
      • Shaking table: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilfley_table
      • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiral_separator
      • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jig_concentrators
      • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elutriation
      • Multi-G separators can separate fine particles, 5-50 micron diameter.
        • https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knelson_concentrator
  • Chemical separation
    • Froth flotation separates hydrophobic materials from hydrophilic to recover sulfides, carbonates and oxides. Sodium ethyl xanthate is a flotation agent for galena (lead sulfide) from sphalerite (zinc sulfide).
    • Leaching converts valuable metals into soluble salts. Cyanide for gold, ammonia for copper sulfide, nitric acid for sulfide ore, sulfuric acid for zinc sulfide.
      • 200 BC. Heap leaching of iron with copper sulfate in China.
    • Bayer process refines bauxite to alumina. NaOH leaching at 180 °C produces red mud waste and sodium aluminate, which crystalizes as aluminum hydroxide or gibbsite. Rotary kiln or fluid calcination at 1,200 °C produces aluminium oxide.
    • Hall–Héroult process smelts aluminum from aluminium oxide.
    • Electrowinning or electroextraction is electrodeposition of metal from leached solution.
• tailings are rock stripped of valuable minerals. Scavenging might recover more ores.
• tailings dam stores byproducts.

Oil wells are drilled, lined with casing, and then tubing is installed inside the casing.

Oil drilling

• Newer rigs spin the drill pipe with a top drive, while older kelly rigs using a rotary table and kelly. Diesel electric rigs are powered by several diesel engines producing several thousand horsepower of electricity, which is distributed via silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR). Older power rigs transmit mechanical power using belts.
• The drawworks is a powered, clutched spool that reels the drill line in or out. A cathead is a secondary spool. The makeup cathead is used to pull tongs.
• The traveling block is suspended from the crown block by the drill line, a wire rope threaded in six sections for mechanical advantage. It forms a block-and-tackle pulley system which can lift a million pounds. The traveling block connects to the top drive and the elevators that latch onto the drillpipe. A sheave is a pulley.
• The drill string consists of drillpipe and the bottomhole assembly. Each 30’ joint of toolpipe has an enlarged male-threaded tool joint at each end. The tool joint is fabricated from high-strength steel and welded onto the pipe body. Joints are connected with a slightly wider female-threaded collar or coupling.
• The bottomhole assembly BHA is the lower portion of the drillstring. It contains the drill bit, jars, mud motor, logging tools, and collars and crossovers that connect different thread types or sizes.
  • A jar or down-the-hole (DTH) drill is a pneumatic hammer that follows the bit into the hole.
  • For directional drilling or slant drilling, a bent sub steers the bit in the desired direction. To slide is to drill with a mud motor without rotating the drillstring.
• The operator company leads the project. It pays the drilling contractor to operate the drilling rig at a daily rate, a footage rate, or a fixed payment for turnkey operations. The company man is the operator’s representative on the rigsite. The drilling foreman or toolpusher is the supervisor for the rig who administers staffing and supplies.
• The drilling crew operates the rig mainly from the rig floor. They work in shifts: the daylight tour starts at 8 am, the evening tour starts at 4 pm, and the graveyard tour starts at midnight.
  • The driller operates the pumps, rotary table, drawworks and brake via the drillers console on the rig floor. The driller is the supervisor and the person “on the brake”.
  • The derrickman racks pipe onto the fingerboards. He works from the monkeyboard 85’ above the rig floor and can use the Geronimo line to escape in an emergency. During circulation, the derrickman adds mud treatments. The mud engineer tests mud density and Marsh funnel viscosity.
  • Roughnecks make connections.
  • Roustabouts are unskilled manual laborers who cleans, digs trenches, and paints.
• The doghouse next to the rig floor is a steel shelter on the rig floor used as office, lunchroom, and toolshed. The catwalk is a raised platform 3’ above the rig floor, used as a staging area for tools and components. The vee-door is the open side of the derrick with an emergency slide down to the catwalk.
• Trip out of the hole (TOH). To rack back is to remove a three-joint stand or triple of drillpipe. The floor crew pushes the stand to the vee-door, the driller slacks off on the drawworks, and the derrickman unlatches the elevators and pulls the stand in the fingerboards for storage.
• To slip and cut is to replace the drilling line. When the line reaches its maximum rated ton-miles lifted, new line is unspooled from the storage reel, slipped through the sheaves (pulleys), and the excess on the drawworks spool cut and discarded.
• Drilling with coiled tubing eliminates connection time. It is used for slimmer wells, reentering wells, and drilling underbalanced, where the ground pressure is lower than the formation’s reservoir pressure or fluid pressure.
• Circulation. Drilling mud maintains pressure, cools the drill bit, carries the rock cuttings back to the surface. Can be bentenite clay or water. The mud pump sends mud from a mud tank through the suction line, up the metal standpipe on the derrick, through a swiveling gooseneck, down the 3-5" kelly hose, the kelly, and the drill string. Mud returns through the annulus (outside the drill string), the blowout preventer, Bell nipple, flow line, and back to the mud tank. Before entering the tank, mud is processed through the possum belly metal container that slows the flow, shale shaker that separate large solid cuttings, and hydrocyclones and centrifuges to desand and desilt.

Casing stabilizes the wellbore and blocks oil from migrating to thief zones. Casing string is lowered into a wellbore and cemented into place. Deep wells may need to be drilled and cased in multiple stages, called a casing program. Each casing uses a narrower pipe. One casing string can have sections of different types of metal. Casing has the highest longitudinal tension and internal burst pressure near the top, and the highest external collapsing pressure at the bottom.

• Conductor pipe or drive pipe is the structural foundation of the wellhead and prevents washouts from topsoil. It is often installed with a pile driver. 16" onshore, up to 42" offshore.
• Surface casing 14" prevents groundwater contamination.
• Intermediate casing is run to separate problem zones such as areas of high pressure. Mud weight must be between formation pore pressure and fracture pressure.
• Production casing is the final casing string.
• Production liner is a casing string which is hung in the well and does not extend all the way to the surface.
  paraffins, and asphaltenes.
• Production tubing 5-10" protects the casing from corrosion and asphaltene or paraffin wax deposits. Gas wells use 3" tubing in 5" casing.

The wellhead includes:

• Casing head, the interface flange for the blowout preventer or Christmas tree.
• Casing spool with flanges on both ends.
• Casing hangar supports the casing string.
• Choke manifold containing two or more high pressure choke valves.
• Tubing hangar.

A blowout can be caused by reservoir pressure, formation kick caused by
The blowout preventer (BOP) includes a kill valve for injections, choke line for fluid return, shear rams, blind rams, annular preventer, mud return line, and the injector head.

The Christmas tree includes:

• Swab valve at the top for well interventions like wireline and coiled tubing.
• Actuated right hand flow wing valve or production wing valve takes hydrocarbons to production facilities.
• Left hand kill wing valve used to inject fluids such as corrosion inhibitors or methanol to prevent hydrate formation.
• Actuated wing valve used to shut the valve while flowing.
• Actuated master valve at the bottom.
• Manually operated master valve at the very bottom.

Fracking or hydraulic fracturing injects high-pressure fracking fluid to increase flow. Fracking fluid contains sand or other proppants to hold cracks open, and thickening agents to suspend the sand.

An oil platform or oil rig extracts and processes petroleum and natural gas below the seabed. Fixed platforms extend to 1,000’. Compliant towers extend to 2,000’. They are supported by water and designed for substantial lateral deflection. Semi-submersible platforms extend to 10,000’ anchored by multiple chains or ropes. A drillship is an exploratory vessel with dynamic positioning for water up to 10,000’.

https://glossary.slb.com/en/terms/s/survey
https://glossary.slb.com/en/terms/m/mud_weight
https://glossary.slb.com/en/terms/h/hydrostatic_pressure
https://glossary.slb.com/en/terms/k/kill
https://glossary.slb.com/en/terms/d/derrickman
Well logging records the geologic formations penetrated by a borehole.

• The Standard Penetration Test SPT drives a split-barrel sampler with a 140 lb hammer dropped 30 inches. The blow count needed to drive the sampler the 1 foot measures soil density and strength. The sampler is a 2" outer dimeter steel tube which can be opened along its length to retrieve the collected soil sample. A safety hammer has a 60% energy transfer ratio, while an auto hammer has around 80%.
  • https://www.usbr.gov/tsc/techreferences/mands/geologyfieldmanual-vol2/Chapter22.pdf
• A progressing cavity pump is a positive displacement pump. It forces a specific volume of fluid with each rotation, regardless of the discharge pressure. It consists of a screw-shaped steel rotor which turns within a molded helical cavity in the stator. Progressing cavities between the rotor and stator trap fluid and pump the fluid.

In the older kelly rig, the traveling block connects to the shock absorber, hook, swivel, swivel bail, swivel, kelly spinner, and kelly.

• The kelly spinner is a low torque motor, only used for initial threading of tool joints. It replaces spinning chains which injured many people.
• The upper end of the drill string screws to the kelly saver sub, which screws to the kelly. The saver reduces wear and tear on the threads of the kelly.
• The kelly is a 40’ hollow steel bar in a square or hexagonal shape which rotates the drillstring and allows the drillstring to be raised or lowered.
• The rotary table spins the kelly clockwise (viewed from above) via the kelly bushing (KB), which has a square or hexagonal hole. The kelly bushing is connected to the rotary table with four large steel pins.
• To make a connection is to add another joint onto the top of the drill string. A roughneck would pull the kelly above the rotary table, hang off the drill string on the rotary table, unscrew the kelly, swing the kelly over and screw it onto a new segment in the mousehole, screw this assembly onto the existing drill string, and lower the drill pipe until the bit takes weight at the bottom of the hole.
• Slips or tongs are used to grip the drillstring on the rotary table for breakout (loosening) or makeup (tightening). Tongs are self-locking wrenches. Slips are three toothed wedges that are hinged together. The outside tapers so that lowering the drillstring provides a compressive force inward.

TODO https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pumpjack

Seismic waves

Primary waves (P-waves) are longitudinal body waves that travel at the speed of sound: 330 m/s in air, 1450 m/s in water, and 5000 m/s in granite. It is an elastic compressional wave, so higher modulus (stiffness) increases speed, while higher density decreases speed.
Seconary waves (S-waves) are transverse body waves, where earth moves up and down perpendicular to the direction of propagation. They travel by shear stress, so they can only travel through solids and travel at Mach 1/sqrt(3), resulting in around 1 s of time difference over 8 km.
Earthquakes usually occur around 33 km, but can be as deep as 700 km.

Isotropic medium with density ρ: the strain in response to stress has Lamé parameters modulus λ and shear modulus μ.
3x3 strain (deformation) tensor \(e_{ij} = 1/2 ∂_iu_j + 1/2 ∂_j u_i\) for displacement u.

Stress (force) tensor 𝜏
\(𝜏_{ij} = λδ_{ij} \sum_k e_{kk} + 2μe_{ij}\)
\(𝜏_{ij} = λδ_{ij} \sum_k ∂_ku_k + μ(∂_iu_j + ∂_ju_i)\)

Newton’s law of inertia ma=F: \(ρ∂_t^2 u_i = \sum_j ∂_j𝜏_{ij}\)

Seismic wave equation:
\(ρ∂_t^2 u_i = λ∂_i\sum_k ∂_ku_k + μ\sum_j(∂_i∂_ju_j + ∂_j∂_ju_i)\)
\(ρ∂_t^2 u = (λ + 2μ) ∇(∇∙u) - μ∇×(∇×u)\)

Taking the divergence, the P-wave equation for compression strain ∇∙u has a solution with speed sqrt((λ+2μ)/ρ).

Taking the curl, the S-wave equation for shear strain ∇×u is
\(∂_t^2 (∇×u) = μ/ρ ∇^2(∇×u)\). The solution has speed sqrt(μ/ρ).

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Chronostratigraphy_of_Colorado
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Chronostratigraphy_of_Nevada
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:River_morphology
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Geology_sidebar
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_index_fossils
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Coastal_geography
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delaware_and_Hudson_Railway

USGS has lots of reports. Example:
https://pubs.usgs.gov/wri/1996/4193/report.pdf